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Doctoral education in the U.S. has been significantly influenced by the German (Prussian) model, which emphasizes research. This model, adopted in the 19th century, led to the development of distinct PhD programs focused on producing new knowledge. The 20th century saw a boom in American universities, with the number of doctorates awarded rising dramatically. The following universities largely contributed to the development of doctoral education.
University of Chicago (founded in 1890)
University of Chicago (founded in 1890)
William Rainey Harper, the first president of the University of Chicago.
Harper was considered as one of the founders of modern American graduate education. In one of his most influential works: Harper, W. R. (1905). The trend in higher education. University of Chicago Press. he discussed research-focused universities, outlined the changes to support graduate education, and the need for advanced graduate programs.
Source: Harper, W. R. (1905). The trend in higher education. University of Chicago Press.
University of Michigan (founded in 1817)
University of Michigan (founded in 1817)
Henry Philip Tappen, the first president of UM.
Tappen was a proponent of the German model (emphasizing research at universities). In his work, Tappan, H. P. (1851). University Education. G. P. Putnam., he discussed the importance of research-focused universities and his vision for American higher education.
In 1854 the number of master’s degrees granted jumped to eighteen from four in the previous year (See Timeline of Graduate Education at U-M » Rackham Graduate School: University of Michigan )
Source: Peckham, H. H. (1994). The making of the University of Michigan, 1817-1992. University of Michigan Press.
Rackham Graduate School. (n.d.). Timeline of graduate education at U-M. University of Michigan.
Tappan, H. P. (1851). University Education. G. P. Putnam.
Tappan, H. P. (1852). A discourse. Advertiser power presses.
Yale University (founded in 1701)
Yale University (founded in 1701)
Theodore Dwight Woolsey, 10th president of Yale University.
Under his tenure (1846-1871), the Yale University expanded considerably. The Scientific School and the School of Fine Arts were established during this time, and in 1861, the first ever American PhD degree was granted.
Woolsey was a tutor at Yale, then went abroad to study Greek in Leipzig, Bonn, and Berlin. His experience in Germany may contribute to his vision of advancing research at the university.
Source: Burchardt, L. (1980). Americans and German Scholarship 1770—1870 (Yale Historical Publications, Miscellany, Bd. 115).
Committee of the Corporation and the Academical Faculty. (1828). Reports on the course of instruction in Yale College. New Haven, CT.
Harvard University (founded in 1636)
Harvard University (founded in 1636)
Charles William Eliot, 21st president of Harvard University.
Under Eliot's leadership, Harvard adopted an "elective system" which vastly expanded the range of courses offered and permitted undergraduates unrestricted choice in selecting their courses of study. A monumental expansion of Harvard's graduate and professional school and departments facilitated specialization, while at the same time making the university a center for advanced scientific and technological research.
During his presidency, Eliot highlighted research as central to the university’s mission. The first Doctor of Education (EdD) degree was granted at Harvard University in 1921.
Source: Elliott, C. A., & Rossiter, M. W. (Eds.). (1992). Science at Harvard University: historical perspectives. Lehigh University Press.
Menand, L., Reitter, P., & Wellmon, C. (Eds.). (2017). The rise of the research university: A sourcebook. University of Chicago Press.
Johns Hopkins University (founded in 1876)
Johns Hopkins University (founded in 1876)
Daniel Coit Gilman, first president of JHU.
Gilman focused on the expansion of graduate education and support of faculty research. The new university fused advanced scholarship with such professional schools as medicine and engineering. Hopkins became the national trendsetter in doctoral programs and the host of numerous scholarly journals and associations
His inauguration in 1876 has been said to mark "the starting point of postgraduate education in the U.S.
Source: Menand, L., Reitter, P., & Wellmon, C. (Eds.). (2017). The rise of the research university: A sourcebook. University of Chicago Press.
Columbia University (founded in 1754)
Columbia University (founded in 1754)
Frederick Augustus Porter Barnard, 10th president of Columbia University.
As president of Columbia College, Barnard successfully oversaw further steps in the transformation of the College into a university; including the founding of the Faculty of Political Science (1880), later a part of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences; the School of Architecture (1881); the Industrial Education Association (1886), later Teachers College.
The first Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in the field of education was granted at Teachers College, Columbia University in 1893.
Source: Brophy, A. L. (2008). The university and the slaves: Apology and its meaning. The Age of Apology: Facing Up to the Past, 109.
Shulman, L. S., Golde, C. M., Bueschel, A. C., & Garabedian, K. J. (2006). Reclaiming education’s doctorates: A critique and a proposal. Educational researcher, 35(3), 25-32.
Post World War II
Post World War II
Following World War II, research universities in the United States experienced a significant change. The GI Bill provided veterans with funding for higher education, leading to a surge in student enrollment and a major boost in federal funding for research at universities. As a result, research universities experienced a huge expansion and development that solidified their role in scientific advancement and national development.
Driven by the need to address complex scientific challenges, Post-war research universities saw the development of new interdisciplinary fields like nuclear physics, aerospace engineering, and molecular biology. Fields like pharmacy and psychology also expanded to address the need for soldier's physical and mental health. Research conducted at universities played a crucial role in advancing medical treatments, technological innovations, and social sciences.
The postwar period witnessed the emergence of new challenger institutions, such as state universities which often offer greater accessibility and serve a broader population. Consequently, the competition between Elitism vs. Accessibility rose, which is very similar to what we witness today. These institutions faced challenges such as concerns about commercialization and the pressures of securing funding.
Source:
Stoke, H. W. (1947). The Future of Graduate Education. The Journal of Higher Education, 18(9), 473-492.
Ellis, H. C. (1992). Graduate education in psychology: Past, present, and future. American Psychologist, 47(4), 570.
Lebovitz, L., Swaan, P. W., & Eddington, N. D. (2020). Trends in research and graduate programs in schools and colleges of pharmacy, Part 1: Programs. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 84(5), 7643.
Berelson, B. (1960). Graduate Education in the United States.
Veysey, L. (1981). The emergence of the American university. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981.
Graham, H. D., & Diamond, N. (1997). The rise of American research universities: Elites and challengers in the postwar era. JHU Press.
20th and 21st centuries
20th and 21st centuries
Starting in the mid-20th century, driven by Cold War competition and the need to keep pace with emerging industrial nations, doctoral education in the U.S. shifted towards a more utilitarian focus. Unlike a hot war, the Cold War offered a an extended period federally funded research public subsidy for expanding student enrollments.
This trend continued into the late 20th and early 21st centuries, with a growing emphasis on entrepreneurship and industrial innovation. This shift, combined with the massification of undergraduate education, contributed to a significant increase in the number of master’s and doctoral programs offered by U.S. universities.
Source: Labaree, D. F. (2016). Learning to love the bomb: The Cold War brings the best of times to American higher education. In Educational research: Discourses of change and changes of discourse (pp. 101-117). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Ruano‐Borbalan, J. C. (2022). Doctoral education from its medieval foundations to today's globalisation and standardisation. European Journal of Education, 57(3), 367-380.
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