Middel Ages
9-12th Centuries
The word "doctor" and the concept of a doctorate emerged, associated with episcopal or urban schools in Italy, western France, the northern Iberian peninsula, England, and parts of the Holy Roman Empire. Doctorates were linked to guilds or professions and acquiring skills in law, medicine, theology, and natural philosophy.
12-15th Centuries
The granting of doctorates was linked to the growing autonomy of university teaching guilds and the socialization of students aiming to become professionals within those guilds. Universities were established as networks of students (Bologna) or communities of teachers (Paris).
Modern Era
15-18th Centuries
Universities expanded but faced criticism for not meeting societal needs, not adequately training elites, and for the difficulty students had finding jobs after graduation. Formalized languages and methods, particularly mathematics and logic in Latin, became more central to university education. The establishment of academies of sciences and specialized schools challenged the existence of universities and traditional university degrees.
18th Century
Universities gradually incorporated advances in the natural sciences and the mechanical arts, including technical, professional, and industrial knowledge.
1787: Dorothea Schloezer became the first woman to be granted a Doctor of Philosophy degree at the University of Göttingen (Germany).
1800s
Political upheaval devastated the university landscape in Europe. The number of universities decreased significantly, and two models emerged: the French model (training elites through specialized schools) and the German (Prussian) model (emphasizing research at universities).
19th Century
1810
The University of Berlin was established, embodying the "Humboldtian model" that linked research to individual development and knowledge exchange.
Mid-19th Century
Doctoral examinations were modernized. A written dissertation became essential for demonstrating the capacity to produce new knowledge.
20th Century
1920s-1970s
A postgraduate doctorate was created in France, requiring two years of work. Defending a paper became possible (and frequent) in France.
1970s-1980s
Doctoral education in France was transformed, questioning the traditional long apprenticeship and introducing shorter procedures and theses composed of multiple articles.
Late 20th-Early 21st Centuries
Doctoral education underwent globalization, standardization, and reorientation, driven by geopolitical competition, economic development, and the rise of the knowledge economy.
Two main forms of doctorates emerged: (1) research doctorate (for academic careers) and (2) professional doctorate (for careers outside academia).
Source:
Ruano‐Borbalan, J. C. (2022). Doctoral education from its medieval foundations to today's globalisation and standardisation. European Journal of Education, 57(3), 367-380.
Carter, M. (2013). The evolution of doctoral education in nursing. Advanced Practice Nursing: Evolving Rolese for the Transformation of the Profession, 27-35.
Ruano‐Borbalan, J. C. (2022). Doctoral education from its medieval foundations to today's globalisation and standardisation. European Journal of Education, 57(3), 367-380.
Martin, E. J. (1989). The doctor of philosophy degree: evolutionary and societal perspectives. NLN publications, (15-2238), 1-16.
Verger, J. (1992). The doctorate. In H. De Ridder-Symoens (Ed.), Universities in the middle ages (pp. 144–168). Cambridge University Press.
Rüegg, W. (2014). Universities in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (1800-1945), tome 3. In I Rüegg (Ed.), A history of the University in Europe. Cambridge University Press.
Anderson, R. D. (2004). Germany and the Humboldtian model. European Universities from the Enlightenment to 1914, 51-65.