Terms and Definitions
Allusion- a reference to a person, place, poem, book, event, etc., which is not part of the story, that the author expects the reader will recognize. Example: In The Glass Menagerie, Tom speaks of “Chamberlain’s umbrella,” a reference to British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain.
Anachronism- the misplacing of a person, object, or situation outside of its correct historical time. Example: In Julius Caesar, a comment is made about a clock chiming, which could not possibly have occurred, since clocks had not been invented when Caesar lived.
Anagnorisis- the moment in a work when the main character realizes that what he or she had believed up to that point is false. Example: Oedipus finally learns that the prophecy of killing his father and marrying his mother has come true, and he blinds himself because of the revelation.
Anaphora- repetition of a word or group of words within a short section of writing.
Example: “A time to be born, and a time to die; a time to plant, and a time to pluck up that which is planted.”–Ecclesiastes 3:2
Anthropomorphism- attributing human qualities, emotions, and behavior to animals.
Examples: In the Uncle Remus stories, the bear is usually portrayed as slow and dumb. Aesop’s Fables also give animals emotions of jealousy, anger, revenge, etc., to illustrate a moral.
Apostrophe- directly addressing a person, place, thing, or abstraction, living, dead, or absent from the work. Example: Ophelia, in Hamlet, says, “O, heavenly powers, restore him.”
Aside- words spoken by an actor in such a way that they are heard by the audience but supposedly not by the other actors. These words usually represent the inner thoughts of the speaker. Example: In Hamlet, Polonius says in an aside, while talking with Hamlet, “Though this be madness, yet there is method in it.”
Climax- the point of greatest dramatic tension or excitement in a story. Examples: Othello’s murder of Desdemona. In To Kill a Mockingbird, the person chasing Scout is killed.
Conflict- the struggle that moves the action forward in a work of literature. There are three types of conflict, and most books include all three: man versus man (Example: a typical Western, in which the sheriff confronts the outlaw); man versus nature (Example: a story about someone surviving in a small boat on the ocean); man versus himself (Example: a character in a story fighting his or her own drug abuse). Some authorities consider man versus society a fourth category of conflict (Example: a character in a book fighting against the Nazis).
Dialogue- conversation between two or more characters.
Exposition- the background information that the reader has to know and/or understand before reading the play or novel. The information is usually dealt with at the beginning of the book. Sometimes, exposition reveals things that occurred before the actual plot begins. Example: The chorus in Romeo and Juliet explains the setting, the feud between the families, and the future deaths of the main characters in fourteen lines of poetry.
Falling Action- additional action that follows the climax. Example: After the deaths near the end of Hamlet, the Prince of Norway enters, and Horatio explains what happened.
Foreshadowing- the use of hints or clues in a story to suggest what action is to come. Foreshadowing is frequently used to create interest and build suspense. Example: Two small and seemingly inconsequential car accidents predict and hint at the upcoming, important wreck in The Great Gatsby.
Idealism- behavior or thought based on a vision of things as they ought to be, rather than as they really are.
Imagery- the use of words to evoke impressions and meanings that are more than just the basic, accepted definitions of the words themselves. Example: The quotation, “Get thee to a nunnery,” from Hamlet implies that Ophelia must regain her purity and chastity and does not simply mean that she needs to go to a convent.
Irony- a perception of inconsistency, sometimes humorous, in which the significance and understanding of a statement or event is changed by its context. Example: The firehouse burned down.
Monologue- an extended speech by one character, either when alone or to others. Example: The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock; Mark Antony’s speech at Caesar’s funeral.
Motif- a situation, incident, idea, or image that is repeated significantly in a literary work. Examples: In Hamlet, revenge is a frequently repeated idea. In The Catcher in the Rye, Holden continually comments on the phoniness of people he meets.
Motivation- the reasons behind a character’s actions. Example: Huckleberry Finn travels down the Mississippi River in order to escape the Widow Douglas, who wants to “sivililize” him.
Omen- the use of an animal or aspect of nature to foretell an event; a sign. An omen can also indicate if the event will be good or evil. Example: In The Odyssey, omens are used to illustrate the will of the gods. A thunderclap right after a prayer is an omen that the gods approve of the prayer.
Oratory- the art of public speaking. A good speech often includes the following elements:
Prose- the ordinary form of written or spoken language, without rhyme or meter; speech or writing that is not poetry. Example: Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass.
Pun- an expression that achieves emphasis or humor by utilizing:
or
Resolution- the part of the story in which all the problems are solved and/or the secrets revealed.
Rising Action- the part of the story’s plot that adds complications to the problems and increases the reader’s interest.
Sarcasm- the use of harsh words to deride and criticize. Sometimes, sarcasm is apparent only by the way something is said rather than the actual words that are used; other times the sarcasm is obvious. Example: In The Catcher in the Rye, Holden says about a taxi driver he dislikes that, “he certainly was good company. Terrific personality.”
Setting- when and where the short story, play, or novel takes place. Examples: Macbeth takes place in the eleventh century in Scotland. The Old Man and the Sea has its main setting on the ocean outside Havana, Cuba, in an unspecified time in the middle-to-late 20th century.
Simile- a comparison between two different things using either like or as. Examples: I am as hungry as a horse. The huge trees broke like twigs during the hurricane.
Soliloquy- lines in a play in which a character reveals thoughts to the audience, but not to the other characters; it is usually longer than an aside and not directed at the audience. Example: Hamlet’s famous “To be or not to be” speech.
Stage Directions- the information given for the reader to visualize the setting, position of props, etc., in a play. Stage directions may give additional impressions of the characters through short descriptions and through what they do. Examples: “Exit”; “She reads from the newspaper.”
Superstition- any belief or attitude based on fear or ignorance that is inconsistent with the known laws of science. Example: Breaking a mirror brings seven years bad luck.
Theme- the central or dominant idea behind the story; the most important aspect that emerges from how the book treats its subject. Sometimes theme is easy to see, but, at other times, it may be more difficult. Theme is usually expressed indirectly, as an element the reader must figure out. It is a universal statement about humanity, rather than a simple statement dealing with plot or characters in the story. Themes are generally hinted at through different methods: a phrase or quotation that introduces the novel, a recurring element in the book, or an observation made that is reinforced through plot, dialogue, or characters. It must be emphasized that not all works of literature have themes in them. Example: In a story about a man who is diagnosed with cancer and, through medicine and will-power, returns to his former occupation, the theme might be: “Real courage is demonstrated through internal bravery and perseverance.” In a poem about a flower that grows, blooms, and dies, the theme might be: “Youth fades, and death comes to all.”
Tragic flaw- the main defect of the protagonist in a tragedy. Example: Hamlet’s failure to act causes his death.
Tragic hero- the main character in a tragedy; in order to fit the definition, the hero must have a tragic flaw, which causes his or her downfall. Examples: Hamlet’s main character weakness is his indecision; Lear’s is his pride.
Verse- another word for “poetry.” In Shakespeare, the educated characters and the nobility usually speak in verse to indicate their high station in life.