The Huns 4

Hun and Xiongnu Society

A Background on Tribes and Chiefdoms

Note that the Hun and Xiongnu society may be referred to as being a tribal society. However, it is actually a Chiefdom. The differences between these two forms of social organization is expanded upon in this section. The Hun and Xiongnu society was a chiefdom that formed an early state.

Social organization evolved from bands, to tribes, to chiefdoms, and then to early states. Contact with civilization is what drives bands together. However, a band is too small to qualify as being a society. Tribes grew from bands. Tribes arose as people banded together. A tribe is a primitive society. It consists of a large group of people that have a culture, a language, and a geographic region in common. A tribe may also be tied to a specific territory. It may evolve from the hunter-gatherer life of nomadic bands to a more settled, agrarian, village lifestyle. A tribe may also span a small number of villages, and it is typically limited to a few thousand people. [Note that early forms of social organization are often based upon bands evolving into tribes, tribes into chiefdoms, and chiefdoms into early states.]

A tribe’s members are deemed roughly equal to each other. However, there may be tendencies for elders to receive more respect than the young, and men to receive more respect than women do. Tribal democracy is about defining and imposing the will of the majority on everyone. Tribes also tend to be boundary-sensitive. 

A tribe's organizing principle is kinship. Every tribe had its own custom for tracing descent. Some traced it through men (paternal lines). Some tribes traced it through women (maternal lines), and some tribes traced it through both paternal and maternal lines. They used a clan system to do this. 

A tribe is, typically, composed of smaller groups, that are called clans. (Most tribes had clans.) The members of a particular clan shared a common ancestor, and they were considered to be related to one another. The members of a clan are united by an actual or a perceived kinship and descent. Their kinship-based bonds are based upon the clan sharing a common ancestor. Even if lineage details are unknown, clan members may be organized around a founding ancestor. This ancestor is also a symbol of the clan's unity. Additionally, each clan has its own symbol, or spirit that gave the clan its name. Typically, a clan has its own legends, totems, rituals, and ceremonies about its ancestry. A clan may also have an elder to represent it, and its members may serve particular functions in the tribe. These clusters of families and individuals own land and other resources together. (Clans were further divided up into villages and families.) 

The leaders of tribes and clans were called Chiefs. Tribes may also have both a civil leader and a war leader. (In some Native American tribes, there were both War and Peace Chiefs. However, the Peace Chiefs were the real governors, and the War Chiefs were the leaders of war parties.) Chieftainships went by clans. The chieftainship belonged to the main lineage of a particular clan. One’s identity was less about one’s self than about one’s lineage. Lineage determined most of one’s identity as an individual. 

Everything went by clans, or by certain lineages within the clans. Clans and lineages are kin-based units. A clan or a lineage is a group of relatives who may be united by privileged ties. It is a group whose members support each other. Also, some clans and lineages may compete for standing. Clan and family units were linked through their loyalty to their Tribal Chiefs. 

A tribal condition is transcended in a chiefdom. It changes social life, as cultural identification and economic interdependence supersede bonding as the fiber of social cohesion. (A chiefdom presides over a larger set of villages. Chiefdoms have a larger, and more varied population.) 

The organization at this scale requires a political hierarchy. A clannish hierarchy is often put into place. A chiefdom is first organized by kinship principles (that were formerly used to govern local tribes). However, kinship-based institutions gradually give way to more bureaucratic institutions. 

Chiefdoms were initially based upon charismatic authority. However, succession rules emerged that made ascension to the post hereditary. The Chief was also believed to be sanctioned by a divine supernatural authority that was linked to his lineage. In a chiefdom some lineages and descent groups became more important than other ones. Rank depended on genealogical proximity to a key ancestor. Also, beneath the Chief and his clan was a pyramidal structure of Subsidiary Chiefs and Clans, with ranking reflecting genealogical nearness to the Chief. (A tribe’s villages, typically, fell under a single-clan chiefdom.)

In a chiefdom there is also a shift from reciprocity to redistribution. A Chief plays a lead role in redistributing resources within the tribe, and between other tribes. A chiefdom also allowed for specialization, in what  different villages did, in order to raise economic productivity.

In a chiefdom social relations were primarily based upon kinship, descent, marriage, age, and gender, just as they were in tribes. There is a continuum from a tribe, to a chiefdom, to a state. A chiefdom is a transitional form of sociopolitical organization on the way from a tribe to a state. Some societies had attributes of chiefdoms, but retained tribal features, while others developed attributes of archaic states. Primary states emerged from a competition among chiefdoms, as one chiefdom conquered its neighbors, and made them a part of their political system.  

According to some sources, a characteristic of a chiefdom is that it has a population in the thousands, whereas, a characteristic of a state is that it has a population is the hundreds of thousands. However, a chiefdom or a state can not, adequately, be classified as being a chiefdom or a state based upon its population figures alone. It should be classified based upon all of the characteristics that it possesses.

It is stated that the population of the Xiongnu was about 1 million, and that around 300,000 members of it were mounted archers and warriors. However, in spite of its population figures, the Hun and Xiongnu society was a chiefdom. It retained some tribal features, but it was a chiefdom that formed an early state. As an emerging state it retained features that were essentially those that were possessed by a chiefdom. 

Hun Society

A pastoral nomad society developed North of China. These nomads lived around the perimeters of the Chinese kingdoms. The Huns were one of these nomadic groups. They were steppe nomads, and their social structure reflected the demands of that way of life. 

The Huns were involved in cattle breeding. Their cattle moved from place to place, and they moved with their cattle from one pasture to another one. Hunting also played a large role in the life of the Huns. The Huns typically followed their cattle, and they hunted in the fields. They were also involved in horse breeding. (The syunnuy horses that the Huns bred were small, and thickset. They could easily climb mountainous terrain.) The Huns also bred sheep, goats, and camels. 

The Huns normally ate the meat of cattle, and they drank milk. They also dressed in leather. Starting with their rulers, everyone ate the meat of domestic cattle, and they dressed in pelts, which were covered with woolen and fur clothing. 

The Hunnic tribes were patriarchal, with men responsible for war. However, it is stated that the Huns also had women warriors. The women were responsible for serving and protecting the territory. Women were also trained in fighting, and they were expected to defend the territory. They were also expected to raise children and provide for the home. (Hun males were allowed more than one wife.) 

The Huns did not read nor write, and their education consisted of learning and developing horsemanship and archery skills. Boys often rode on rams, and pulled bows. They shot at birds and mice. As they grew older, they shot foxes and hares (which were used for food). 

The Huns' laws were practical. There were, for example, restrictive incest laws. The male rulers, like every other member of the tribe, had to take concubines and wives from non-related blood lines. On the death of his father, a Hun would marry his stepmothers, and on the death of his brother, he would marry his sister-in-laws. On the death of a father or a brother a Hun would take their wives to ensure continuity of the family line. However, a stepmother would always be from a non-related tribe, as would the wife of a deceased brother.

The economic system of the Huns was primitive. They often traded with the Chinese for silk fabrics, and luxury goods. The Huns also realized that there was a path to prosperity through war. During bad times they practiced bow shooting from a horse. Everyone who was able to handle a bow joined an armored cavalry. When in need, everyone prepared for raiding. (The Huns were among the first to use stirrups, as they rode into battle on harnessed horses, while shooting arrows.) 

The Huns had slaves, who were formed from a number of war prisoners, and the population of subjugated groups. They were used as house servants, shepherds, handicraftsmen, and grain-growers. (However, it is stated that the Hun's way of life made it difficult for them to have slaves. Therefore, those taken as slaves were often sold.)

The Steppe was not the most hospitable place, and the pursuit for scarce resources was an underlying factor in the raids into China. 

Xiongnu Society

The Huns headed a powerful alliance of cattle-breeding tribes in the late 3rd to the early 2nd century B.C. In the Hunnic territory, there were 24 plots of land (which also included pasturing routes) that were used for nomadic camps. The Huns started out as a tribe that was composed of Hunnu people. They formed a union of tribes when they added territory to their own by appropriating 24 Hunnu subdivisions. Therefore, the Hun state consisted of 24 clans/tribes. There were also 24 tribal leaders (Chiefs). 

The Huns created and dominated the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu was a federation of Eurasian nomads (steppe nomadic tribes), who dominated the Asian Steppe from the late 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. 

The social structure of the Xiongnu could be described through both a functional perspective and a conflict perspective. The Xiongnu consisted of an organized and unified conglomeration of competing and cooperating pastoral nomadic tribes. The Xiongnu consolidated these separate nomadic tribes into a powerful tribal empire. However, many of these tribes were conquered and subjugated, and then they were incorporated into the Xiongnu. Therefore, the Xiongnu resembled a conquering nomadic state to other nations. However, the Xiongnu's internal structure resembled a tribal confederation. It was tribal, in the sense that clans and family units were held together through ties of loyalty to their Chiefs. (The latter were selected for their military prowess.) The state was also tribal, because it resembled a tribe in its hierarchy of lineages and access to power. However, as was stated, Hun and Xiongnu society was a chiefdom. It was tribal in nature, but it evolved into a Chiefdom, that formed an early state.

Note that the term, "confederation," and the term, "federation," are both applied to the Xiongnu. However, a key difference between a confederation, versus a federation, is that the membership of the member states is voluntary in a confederation, while the membership in a federation is not. Therefore, since the Xiongnu was, in part, formed from tribes that were conquered and subjugated, it would actually be more appropriate to refer to the Xiongnu as being a federation. However, its internal structure resembled a tribal confederation of steppe nomadic tribes. Therefore, the Xiongnu could also be referred to as being a confederation. Thus, either term could be applied to it.

The Xiongnu was formed from a number of tribes. The Xiongnu started out being a collection of small tribes that resided in the Mongolian highlands. The Huns formed a federation of mercenaries from Hun tribes, and from other tribes (from the surrounding regions), who were conquered and subjugated. 

The earliest known ruler of this federation/confederation of nomadic tribes was Toumen. He united the nomadic tribes, who were living in Mongolia, and he invaded Northern China. When Toumen invaded Northern China, he gained many pastures for the people, whereby, the Xiongnu economy prospered, and the empire strengthened. (The nomadic economy was greatly dependent on grassy plains.) 

Chinese sources, from the 3rd century BC, report them as having created an empire under Modu Shanyu, who was Toumen’s son and successor. Modu brought the Xiongnu and other nomadic tribes together into a powerful federation/confederation. Modu built the Xiongnu into a powerful empire by conquering and subjugating many other tribes, which were then organized into the existing system. Modu conquered 26 other groups, and subjugated many of them into the Xiongnu. (The House of the Huns subdued all nomadic tribes in the North, and in the South.) This new unity of different ethnic groups made it possible for him to expand the empire on all sides. Modu transformed the Xiongnu Empire into a much more fearsome enemy. When Modu ruled the Xiongnu Empire, his army was able to protect the people and further expand the empire. This expansion gave even more land to the empire, and the people prospered. When Modu died, his empire stretched from Korea (to the East), Lake Balkash (to the West), Lake Baikal (to the North), and Tibet (to the South). The Xiongnu became a nomadic or steppe empire. 

An established hierarchy was formed by leaders following Modu Shanyu. The hierarchy consisted of a political system that was composed of a political center, and an Eastern (Left) branch and a Western (Right) branch. It is stated, that in 300 BC, the state consisted of the following elite clans: The Luandi (the Xu-la), the Lan (the A-lan), the Suibu (Hiu-bu), and the Qiulin (the Siu-lin). It is further stated, that in 209 BC, the Hunnic state consisted of 6 elite clans: The Chubei (the Chu Bei, or the Chu Ge), the Huyan (the Qiang), the Lan (the A-lan), the Luandi (Xu-la), the Qiulin (the Suilin, Tsulin, or Qunlun), and the Suibu (the Sui, Hui, or Yui, who were Uigurs). 

[The Luandi clan was the royal clan. The royal family descended directly from the elite paternal Luandi lineage. The Luandi lineage descended from the early Shanyus, Toumen and Modu. (Toumen was a Hunnu Shanyu, as was Modu.) The elite maternal clans were the nobility. These ruling clans, along with the royal family, were the imperial clans. Members of these ruling clans, along with the royal family, led separate subdivisions of nomads.]

The Xiongnu's political structure had indigenous origins that emerged out of subsistence practices, which focused on domestic animal husbandry, long-range mobility, and an extensive relationship with the steppe landscape. Their cattle, horse, sheep, goat, and camel herding practices were maintained through flexible mobility patterns. Herding animals served as their common economic foundation. Animals were an easily transportable resource base, and a source of wealth. The Xiongnu also engaged in extensive trade with agriculturist groups in southern Siberia, and Han China. 

The Xiongnu are frequently portrayed as nomadic pastoralists who wandered the steppe in search of grass and water for their herds, while depending on their beasts to feed and shelter them. However, they were actually multi-resource nomads. The Xiongnu participated in a mixed economy. In addition to herding animals, they were involved in hunting, and agriculture.

The Xiongnu basically consisted of pastoral nomadic people, and herder campsites. However, there were also sedentary populations that were incorporated into the Xiongnu. The sedentary populations were engaged in agriculture and handicrafts. They cultivated wheat, oats, barley, and vegetables. As was stated, the Xiongnu also bred cattle, horses, sheep, goats, and camels. Therefore, parts of fields were used for cattle, etc. The Xiongnu also produced objects from stone, horn, wood, and felt. An Xiongnu fortress and settlement was discovered that contained the remains of a workshop that had a smelting furnace. This indicates that iron was produced within the Xiongnu territory. They were also masters of iron and bronze. The products they produced included tools, harnesses, belt buckles, and an arsenal of war equipment (arrowheads, swords, daggers, and chest plates). Belts were also important to cattle-breeding tribes, such as the Xiongnu. The type of design, and the level of decoration on a belt plaque, was an indicator of an individual's social status. (The nomads, in the Xiongnu, had a higher status than the sedentary groups that were incorporated into it.) 

Bulls and pigs were their main sources of meat. However, wild animals were also hunted and used for food. The latter animals included: Deer, antelope, fox, elk, bear, badger, hare, and ferret. 

The Xiongnu built walled fortresses and developed urban centers. (There were villages protected by huge walls.) There were also smaller open-air settlements (without fortifications). The aristocracy lived in small palaces. The use of pastoralism and agriculture, combined with walled settlements, provided distribution points for animal and plant products. 

It is stated that the residential patterns of the Xiongnu reflected ecological, rather than sociological or political necessities, because the Xiongnu pastoralist economy was essentially a subsistence economy. 

[A subsistence economy is a non-monetary economy that relies on natural resources to provide for basic needs. This is typically accomplished through hunting, gathering, and subsistence agriculture. In a subsistence economy, economic surplus is minimal and only used to trade for basic goods.]

As was stated, in another section, the Chinese built walls and dykes on their Northern borders (in order to prevent the Huns and the Xiongnu, and other nomads from readily accessing their territory), but with little success. Later, the Qin linked these walls together, forming the Great Wall of China. The Great Wall became a concrete symbol of the boundary enhancement between the Chinese and the nomadic societies that existed outside of China. 

[In addition to the Xiongnu (the steppe nomads), who lived North of the Great Wall, these nomadic societies included the Xianbei (the steppe-forest nomads), who lived beyond the Northeast part of the Great Wall, and the Qiang (the highland-valley nomads), who lived on the Northwest frontier of the Han Empire. The Xiongnu were organized into a state. The Xianbei organized themselves into several tribal confederacies, and the Qiang (who were composed of numerous tribes) pursued temporary alliances for the purpose of engaging in war. However, the focus is on the Xiongnu within this section.]

Most pastoralists raided their sedentary agriculturalist neighbors for animals and other valuables. War for booty was a part of the lifestyle of the Northern steppe. Therefore, the nomads of the Central Asian Steppes developed raiding into a fine art. These nomadic groups, who existed outside of the Great Wall, developed pastoral economies and social organizations within which their people shared and allocated limited resources. However, they realized that they could also obtain resources by breaking through the Great Wall. 

[The Nomadic economy was unstable, because none of their products could be stored, and these products had to be moved with them. A large herd could be wiped out by disease, or bad weather, or theft and raids by other tribes. Therefore, they had to find a more stable source of income; so they decided to extort goods and trade benefits from China.] 

Characteristics of Elements of the Hun and Xiongnu Social Structure

[Also, see the section on chiefdoms and states.]

The Xiongnu Position

The Xiongnu, under Modu Shanyu, had raided the Chinese frontier, and the ruler of the province surrendered. Then, the founder of the Han dynasty (Gaozu) led his troops against them. He pursued the Xiongnu, and the Xiongnu led him into an ambush at Pingcheng, where he was separated from the main army, and he was surrounded by the Xiongnu cavalry for 7 days. Then, Gaozu sent an envoy to Modu's wife, and they struck a secret bargain with her to gain his release. She convinced Modu that the capture of Gaozu would not be in his best interests, because the Xiongnu could not occupy and rule China. Therefore, the Xiongnu opened up a small hole, in order to let Gaozu and his troops escape. After this event, foreign relations with the Xiongnu began. The Han and the Xiongnu signed  the Heqin treaty. The treaty included the following provisions: The Chinese would make fixed annual payments of silk, wine, grain and other foods to the Xiongnu. Modu would be given a Chinese Princess in marriage. Also, the Xiongnu and the Han would be ranked as equal states. There were also gifts of gold, and other items. Additionally, the Great Wall would be the official boundary between the two states.

These subsidies helped to reward the elite, but they were not enough to meet the needs of the other tribesmen. Therefore, once the Xiongnu acquired these concessions, they demanded that the Han court permit them to trade at the border markets. It was important for the Xiongnu to press for the border markets, so that the ordinary nomads could also benefit by trading their products for Han goods. However, the Han court was opposed to border trade, but after repeated invasions by the Xiongnu, they finally gave in and signed a treaty permitting border trade. Modu Shanyu's son also succeeded in negotiating terms for a large-scale market system.

The Xiongnu had been raiding China since the Warring States Period (475 and 221 BC). The Xiongnu and all the other nomadic tribes cultivated a violent reputation in order to have the best bargaining position with China and other countries. The Xiongnu developed a strategy that would force the Han court to negotiate. Their strategy had three major elements:

1) Violent raiding deep into Han territory to terrify the Han court. 

2) Alternating between war and peace to increase the amount of subsidies offered, and to acquire trading privileges granted by the Chinese. (After treaties were signed, the Xiongnu would attack again and extract more concessions out of the Chinese tributary system.)

3) The refusal to occupy Chinese land even after great victories. 

The nomads depended on China to organize the production of needed goods. By raiding the Northern border, or by exploiting the tributary system, the nomads extracted wealth to support their empires. If the economic base of North China was destroyed, and its population greatly reduced, then goods would not be produced by the farmers and artisans. There was little to extort from a region of abandoned villages, or from a population suffering from famine. 

The Huns and the Xiongnu were fierce warriors. Therefore, the Xiongnu state successfully gained resources from the Han Empire through their military activities. However, these military campaigns often resulted in massive livestock losses. (Additionally, the Xiongnu tribes, who were located near the Great Wall, became increasingly dependent upon resources coming from the Han Empire, which eventually played a part in the division of the Xiongnu state.)

The Han Position

The officials of the Chinese government were generally opposed to offensive military schemes. They did not want war, because it was very expensive. It was to the advantage of the Chinese to engage in foreign relations with the Xiongnu. They sought to use strategies to control the Xiongnu people, and to have the Xiongnu be a buffer with regions beyond China. Therefore, they preferred to provide the nomads with their needs, rather than going to war against them. However, they devised other plans in an attempt to sabotage the Xiongnu. In relation to this, they developed a policy referred to as the, ''Five Baits."   

1) Elaborate clothes and carriages to corrupt their eyes

2) Fine food to corrupt their mouths. 

3) Music to corrupt their ears. 

4) Lofty buildings, granaries, and slaves to corrupt their stomachs. 

5) Gifts and favors for those who surrendered. 

The Han court thought that the Shanyu would keep all of these gifts, and that his people would become jealous and rebel. However, they did not realize that the Shanyu depended on gifts from the Chinese for continued power. Therefore, he redistributed them to the tribal leaders. (The Shanyu of the Xiongnu was the only intermediary between China and the nomadic tribes, who could redistribute subsidies and traded goods throughout the different tribes under his command.)

The Xiongnu's Political and Military System

As was stated, the Hun state consisted of 24 clans/tribes, and nomadic camps and pasturing routes. However, according to Chinese records, Modu had also annexed 26 other clans/tribes. These tribes were incorporated into the Xiongnu's system. Some of these groups also retained their own elite rulers. However, there was a core group of elite positions that were not parceled out and handed over to conquered people. Those elite core positions were held by the royal paternal Hun lineage, and the nobility. Those latter positions were also hereditary positions. 

The Xiongnu's political system consisted of a central government, a regional government, and a local government. The Xiongnu was headed by the Hun Khan, who was referred to as the Shanyu. [Note that in various pedigrees, for example, a Hun Khan is often listed as being both a Hun Khan (king), and a Shanyu of the Xiongnu.] He was assisted by two Gudu Marquesses, who relayed communications between him, and other nobles below him. They also handled other administrative functions. The Shanyu and the Gudu Marquesses composed the Xiongnu's central government (or the political center). The Shanyu also exercised direct authority over the central territory. The Shanyu had his court in the center of the region, and he ruled from the center of the region. 

There was also a regional government. The Xiongnu was divided into an Eastern area, and a Western area. These areas were referred to as being the Left (East) Wing and the Right (West) Wing. [After Modu Shanyu, later leaders organized the Xiongnu into an Eastern region and a Western region.]  There were 4 regional governorships in these two Eastern and Western regions (called the 4 Horns). The provincial governors of these regional areas were referred to as being the 4 Horns (Si Jiao). These 4 provincial governors were the sons or the brothers of the Shanyu, and they held the following titles: The Wise King of the Left, the Wise King of the Right, the Luli King of the Left, and the Luli King of the Right. The Wise King of the Left ruled the Eastern region, and the Wise King of the Right ruled the Western region. Additionally, the Luli King of the Left governed in the Eastern parts of the empire, and the Luli King of the Right governed in the Western parts of the empire. (These 4 regional governorships were under the control of the central government.)

The Wise King of the Left was also known as the Worthy King of the Left, or the Tuqi Prince/King of the Left. The Wise King of the Right was also known as the Worthy King of the Right, or the Tuqi Prince/King of the Right. The Wise King of the Left ruled over the Eastern territory, and the Wise King of the Right ruled over the Western territory. (The Wise King of the Left was also the individual who became the next Shanyu.) Likewise, the Luli King of the Left (the Guli/Yuli/Kuli Prince/King of the Left) governed areas of the Eastern region, and the Luli King of the Right (the Guli/Yuli/Kuli Prince/King of the Right) governed areas of the Western region. The Wise Kings and the Luli Kings, specifically, governed the vast area of the conquered countries. Patriarchal tribal relations were strong in the Xiongnu. The Shanyu position, and the 4 Horn positions were held by members of the Luandi lineage, which was the royal paternal Hun lineage, and the royal paternal lineage of the Xiongnu. The Luandi Clan consisted of individuals who were the direct paternal line descendants of Modu Shanyu. This included the Shanyu, his sons, and his brothers, etc. (The family name of the royal lineage of the Shanyu was Luandi. This was, also, later written as Xulianti.)

[Note that a lineage is a descent group that consists of people who are patrilineally or matrilineally descended from a known ancestor, and through a series of links that they can trace. A larger descent group, who believes that they descended from a common ancestor, but do not know the actual connections, is called a clan. For example, the Luandi lineage can be referred to as being a lineage or a clan, depending upon what context it is used in.] 

After the 4 Horns, there was a tribal council (a council of 6), who were referred to as being the 6 Horns (or the 6 Corners). These Lords also held the following positions: The Rizhu King of the Left (the Jiju King of the Left), the Rizhu King of the Right (the Jiju King of the Right), the Wenyuti King of the Left (the Wenyudi King of the Left), the Wenyuti King of the Right (the Wenyudi King of the Right), the Zhanjiang King of the Left, and the Zhanjiang King of the Right.

[Note that the Zhanjiang King of the Left  was also referred to as being the Great (Grand) Danghuare of the Left, and the Zhanjiang King of the Right was also referred to as being the Great (Grand) Danghuare of the Right.]

These individuals were in charge of assisting the Shanyu in jurisdictional matters, and with foreign affairs. Their tasks did not allow them to stay far away from the court for a long time. Therefore, they received smaller lands that were not too far away from the court. The individuals who held these positions were relatives of the Shanyu. 

Some male members of the elite maternal dynastic clans/tribes (who became relatives of the Shanyu) received certain positions in the Xiongnu. The Rizhu King positions, for example, were given to males from the Huyan clan/tribe in the Southern Xiongnu. However, in the Eastern Xiongnu, there are also references to those positions, sometimes, being given to males from the royal paternal Luandi lineage. Additionally, there are references (in ancient records) to an Eastern Xiongnu Shanyu sending his brother, a Wenyudi King of the Right, on a mission, and there is another reference to another Luandi male being a Rizhu King. Therefore, in the Eastern Xiongnu, the Luandi males held the positions of Shanyu, Wise Kings, and Luli Kings, which they also held in the Southern Xiongnu. However, Luandi males, sometimes, also held positions as Rizhu Kings and Wenyudi Kings in the Eastern Xiongnu. The Xiongnu also had judges who dealt with conflicts in society. Members of the Huyan clan/tribe, typically, became Rizhu Kings in the Southern Xiongnu. They held decision making positions. They would make decisions about criminal cases, or litigated matters. Then, they would inform the Shanyu about these matters. (See the section, below, on the Rizhu Kings.) These individuals also made decisions about issues that involved the Right Wing of the empire. (Another source stated that a member of the Suibu clan/tribe (who became a relative of the Shanyu) also held a position as a Judge for the state. Additionally, it is also stated that the position of Guduhou (Gudu/Kudo) was, probably, a Prime Minister-like position, and that it is, probably, also the name of a clan/tribe. (Also, note the Gudu Marquesses positions.) 

The elite maternal clans/tribes for the Luandi lineage were: The Huyan, the Suibu, and the Lan clans/tribes. However, some sources also include the Quilan clan/tribe, whom it is stated may have been a sub-branch of one of the other three elite maternal clans/tribes. Some of the members of these clans/tribes were related to the Shanyu through their maternal lines. (They gave their daughters to him in marriage, and to other members of the Luandi clan). When the males from the dynastic Luandi lineage wed females from the dynastic maternal lines, the mothers, the daughters, and the granddaughters belonged to the dynastic maternal clans/tribes. However, the males of these unions belonged to the Luandi lineage. [The Luandi lineage was about direct paternal descent from Modu Shanyu.]

There was also another maternal clan/tribe that the Luandi paternal line took wives from. According to one source, the Shanyu and his brothers also took wives from the Gudu clan/tribe. This is reflected, for example, in the title of the Xiongnu ruler, Luandi (Luanti) Hutuwusi, who was better known by his title, "Zhizhi Guduhou Chanyu." (Note that Luandi males also have taken wives from other groups, tribes or clans, such as, for example, Chinese Princesses, or the daughters of the kings of tribes that had been conquered and subjugated.)

In the Southern Xiongnu, the Tribal Council consisted of 6 individuals, who were from the elite maternal lines. For example, the father of a Khaton, or her brother, etc., were made up of males from the Huyan, the Suibu, and the Lan clans/tribes (and according to Hou Hanshu, the Qiulin clan/tribe). However, in the Eastern Xiongnu, some of the positions on the Tribal Council were, sometimes, also held by members of the Luandi line.

As was stated, the Individuals in the 4 Horns were from the elite paternal Luandi Hun lineage. The Luandi lineage was the royal family. [This applies to both the Eastern Xiongnu and the Southern Xiongnu.] The individuals in the 6 Horns were from the elite maternal line lineages of the Xiongnu. These elite maternal line lineages were the nobility. [This applies to the Southern Xiongnu. In the Eastern Xiongnu, which preceded both the Northern Xiongnu and the Southern Xiongnu, 4 of the 6 Horn positions were sometimes held by members of the Luandi lineage.] With that stated, the paternal royal lineage (the Luandi lineage), and the constituent noble lineages (from the elite maternal clans) can be understood as comprising the core imperial clans.

Note that there were 24 tribal leaders (Great Chiefs), who ruled over 24 nomadic camps or pasture routes, who were present from the foundation of the Hunnu state (the Xiongnu). The Shanyu (the Hun Khan) was the ruler of the Xiongnu. The Great Chiefs also held specific titles, or they were referred to by those titles. However, the bottom line was that these Great Chiefs were just that...Chiefs (Chieftains). Another term for Chief is Khan. (Khan means Chief or Lord.) In some systems, the supreme Khan was referred to as being a Khaan (the Khan of Khans), while the other Khans, below him, were referred to as being just that...Khans. Therefore, one can think of the positions, that were held by the Great Chiefs, as representing different Chief ranks, with some Chiefs being higher than other ones within the Xiongnu. 

The individuals in the 4 Horns (Si Jiao), and the 6 Horn (Liu Jiao) were 10 of the 24 tribal leaders (Great Chiefs). The 4 tribal leaders of the 4 Horns were members of the royal paternal lineage in both the Eastern Xiongnu and the Southern Xiongnu. The 6 tribal leaders in the 6 Horns (who made up the tribal council) were from the constituent noble stock (Guizhong) in the Southern Xiongnu, or they were sometimes members of the Luandi lineage in the Eastern Xiongnu. The other 14 tribal leaders governed major provinces in the Xiongnu. Each one of these Lords had his own plot of land, which was used for one of the 24 nomadic camps. The individuals who held these positions were either members of the royal paternal lineage, the nobility, or the Xiongnu aristocracy (who were also related to the royal house), or, in some cases, were close relatives of the Shanyu. A collective term for these leaders was Great Ministers (Da Chen); however, they can be thought of less as ministers, because they were Great Chiefs.

There was an administrative hierarchy below the 24 tribal leaders (Great Chiefs). These latter individuals were under the control of the 24 tribal leaders. This administrative hierarchy consisted of a group of subordinate or vasal tribal leaders. These dignitaries were high members of elite society who held control over relatively independent and definable territories. (Note that some of the former rulers, of conquered people, were allowed to remain sub-kings/chiefs under the appropriate Xiongnu oversight and over-kings.) They were local sub-kings/chiefs, and administrators. 

It is stated that the 24 tribal leaders also held military positions. They were referred to as being Chiefs of 10,000 warriors, or Lords of 10,000 Horsemen (or tumens) or Lords of Ten Thousand Cavalry. The 24 tribal leaders served in the political system in times of peace, and in the military system in times of war. Beneath them came the commanders of detachments of one thousand, one hundred, and ten warriors.

The Wise Kings of the Left, the Wise King of the Right, the Luli King of the Left, and the Luli King of the Right also held military positions. They were also Grand Officers (Da Chen). [Depending upon the source, the term, "Da Chen," is either associated with the term, "Great Ministers," or, "Grand Officers."] 

The Rizhu King of the Left, the Rizhu King of the Right, the Wenyuti King of the Left, the Wenyuti King of the Right, the Zhanjiang King of the Left, and the Zhanjiang King of the Right also held military positions. They were also Grand Officers. They held the following positions: The Rizhu King of the Left  was the Great (Grand) General of the Left. The Rizhu King of the Right  was the Great (Grand) General of the Right. The Wenyuti King of the Left  was the Great (Grand) Captain [or the Great (Grand) Commandant] of the Left. The Wenyuti King of the Right  was the Great (Grand) Captain [or the Great (Grand) Commandant] of the Right. The Zhanjiang King of the Left  was the Great (Grand) Danghuare of the Left. The Zhanjiang King of the Right was the Great (Grand) Danghuare of the Right.

[In both the Eastern Xiongnu, and the Southern Xiongnu, members of the Luandi lineage held the positions of the Wise Kings and the Luli Kings. However, in the Eastern Xiongnu, the Rizhu Kings, and the Wenyuti Kings, were sometimes members of the Luandi lineage, whereas, in the Southern Xiongnu, the Rizhu Kings were male members from the Huyan maternal clan/tribe. They were also responsible for the affairs of the conquered states, whereby, they also judged in criminal or controversial cases. However, as was stated, they remained close to the Shanyu's court.]

It is stated that the Gudu Marquesses of the Left and the Right held Small Officer (Xiao Chen) positions. One source states that they may have held Lieutenant positions. The Shizhu Guduhou of the Left and the Right also held Small Officer positions. Various sources list other positions after the Shizhu Guduhou positions, such as the Rizhu Qieju positions of the Left and the Right, who also held Small Officer positions. The Great (Grand) Household Administrators of the Left and the Right are also referred to as being the Danghu. The Danghu is also listed as being a Small Officer position.

[Note that the Zhanjiang Kings are also referred to as being the Great Danghuare, and the Great (Grand) Household Administrators are also referred to as being the Danghu.]

In addition to the preceding positions, other positions included: The Great Duqu of the Left and the Right; the Great Juqu of the Left and the Right; the Lihan Kings of the Left and the Right; the Yizhizi Kings of the Left and the Right; and the Aojian Kings of the Left and the Right. 

(Note that the Huyan, the Lan, and the Suibu clans/tribes belonged to different Wings. The Huyan clan/tribe belonged to the Left Wing, whereas, the Lan and the Suibu clans/tribes belonged to the Right Wing.)

[Also, see the section on, "The Hun Military," and the section on, "Hun Weapons."]

Forms of Succession

In a lineal succession (from father to son), a ruler's son inherited the throne. The ruler's younger brother could only take the throne if the ruler did not have any sons (or if he did not have a son of age). In either case, the leadership became fraternal (from an elder brother to a younger brother, and then back to the heir). Lineal succession avoided the problem of different heirs from different lineages. However, it created tension between a ruler and his brothers. 

In fraternal/lateral successions, brothers succeeded each other after the death of the previous one, with the rulership returning to the son of the eldest brother. However, problems occurred when the youngest brother decided to make his own son the heir, and not his nephew. Also, fraternal succession created many lines of succession, because each son of a former Chief could lay some claim to the office. (Additionally, when a younger brother ascended to the throne, his vacated position, of a heir-in-waiting, went to the next in line, which was either his younger brother, or his eldest nephew.)

Therefore, when a Shanyu died, power would pass on to his son, or to a younger brother if he did not have a son or if he did not have a son of age. This system of hereditary succession (from father to son) prevailed. However, the Xiongnu domination of the steppes ended due to internal problems from succession fights, and economic disasters. (After Modu Shanyu's death, the empire began to decline, and when the empire was split, the economy went into a decline.) Succession problems led to two civil wars, and the second one eventually ended the Xiongnu's domination of the steppes. 

(If one looks at the order of succession, amongst the Xiongnu rulers, one will notice that amidst patterns of lineal successions, there are also some patterns of fraternal successions that do not end up taking the form of fraternal/lateral successions.)

It is stated that the government of the Luandi clan was a simple nomadic steppe leadership structure, with a single leader at the top. The leadership position was sometimes passed to the oldest brother, rather than the oldest son. However, in relation to this, the oldest male member of the royal lineage inherited the leadership position. This was supposed to be the case, but it was not always the case. [However, these succession problems were confined to individuals who were from the Luandi lines of descent.] This led to succession problems, and divided the Xiongnu. 

The Xiongnu Civil Wars 

In 133 to 90 BC, the Han court decided to use an aggressive war policy against the Xiongnu. Their primary objective was to destroy the Xiongnu’s power on the steppe. In relation to this, one of their objectives included creating alliances with the Xiongnu’s nomadic neighbors. Other objectives involved moving Han troops into the Tarim Basin in order to prevent the Xiongnu from linking up with the Qiang, and stopping the revenue the Xiongnu received from Turkestan.

Numerous skirmishes were fought between the Xiongnu and the Han Empire. However, in 129 BC the Han declared war on the Xiongnu, and a war broke out between them. Forty thousand Chinese cavalry made a surprise attack on the Xiongnu at the border markets. The war was difficult for the Han. Nevertheless, the Chinese gained control over the Xiongnu, causing instability in the Xiongnu empire. Later, in 127 BC, the Han retook Ordos from the Xiongnu. Then, in 119 BC, two Han generals led 300,000 soldiers against the Xiongnu, and forced them to retreat into the Gobi desert. The Han eventually pushed the Xiongnu across the Gobi desert, but 20 years later the Xiongnu were back again at China’s borders.]

In 68 BC the Xiongnu suffered from a famine, and a Chief died. In 60 BC, another Chief died, and the tribal leaders were divided over which of two lineages should inherit the throne. (Previous disputes dealt with whether a brother or a son should inherit the throne). The Xiongnu faced a civil war. Upon the 12th Shanyu’s death, his cousin's grandson (Woyanqudi) took power. This was viewed as usurpation. Few supported Woyanqudi, and he eventually fled and committed suicide. The lineage provided several heirs to the throne; therefore, there was a disagreement about who should take over the 14th Shanyu position. Those who supported Woyanqudi pushed for his brother (Tuqi) to be the Shanyu. Then, three more individuals declared themselves the Shanyu. This led to a series of forfeitures and defeats. One claimant was Huhanye, who defeated Tuqi. Then, two more claimants appeared. Huhanye's elder brother, Zhizhi, and Runzhen. However, Zhizhi killed Runzhen. Then, Zhizhi grew in power, and in 53 BC, Huhanye submitted to the Chinese. 

These two rivals for the Shanyu throne initiated a breakup of the Xiongnu. This led to the first civil war, with the weaker party moving South and submitting to the Chinese. This divided the Xiongnu into the Northern and the Southern Xiongnu. This situation lasted for a few years. 

In 32 BC, when Shanyu Huhanye was close to death, he wanted to pass the rulership to his favorite son, who was only the third eldest son. He was advised to have his eldest son succeed him, but afterwards, succession would be passed from the elder to the younger brother. Then, the succession changed from lineal to fraternal succession. The succession passed through his six sons, but his sixth son (Yu) wanted his own son to rule instead of his younger brother. Therefore, he killed his younger brother. However, his nephew (Bi) claimed that, as the eldest son of Huhanye’s eldest son, it was his turn to succeed. Then, Bi began secret negotiations with the Chinese for support. When the Shanyu learned of this he tried to arrest Bi. However, Bi went to China and offered to guard the frontier. China accepted him, whereby, he moved South of the Great Wall, and into Han territory that was abandoned by the Chinese. This split the Xiongnu into two empires: The Northern Xiongnu and the Southern Xiongnu. This situation marked the beginning of a fracturing of the Xiongnu (the Eastern Xiongnu) that eventually brought the empire to an end.

Bi was able to block Chinese trade from reaching his rival, and he maintained exclusive control of the tributary system. Bi also succeeded in getting the Han to provide him with military aid in fighting against the Northern Xiongnu. 

[Throughout the Eastern Han period, these two groups were referred to as being the kingdom of the Southern Xiongnu (the confederates in Inner Mongolia), and the kingdom of the Northern Xiongnu (the ancient Hunnic kingdom of the Orkhon in Outer Mongolia). The Southern Xiongnu were settled within the upper loop of the Yellow River. China used them to defend its Northern borders. With the support of China, the Southern Xiongnu eventually forced the Northern Xiongnu to withdraw from the East, and expand into the West and the Southwest. The Northern Xiongnu expanded Westward, into Northeastern Turkistan and Southwestern Siberia. They abandoned their headquarters in Northern Mongolia, and created a new capital in Northwestern Turkestan. The center of the Xiongnu Empire shifted over 1,000 miles towards Europe, leading to the later invasions of Europe.] 

Also, while the Northern Xiongnu and the Southern Xiongnu were attacking each other, other nomadic groups [the Xianbei from the East, the Dingling from the North, and tribes from the West (the Turkestan area)] attacked the Northern Xiongnu. As a result of this, many Northern Xiongnu tribes defected to the South, and 58 Northern Xiongnu tribes defected to the Xianbei. In 87 AD, the Xianbei beheaded the last Northern Xiongnu Shanyu, and cut off 1,000 heads, and brought them to the Chinese court. It is stated that they were given rich presents. Then, the Xianbei went into the head hunting business, and were paid (per head) by the Chinese.

In 88 AD, the Southern Xiongnu sent a memorial to the Han emperor pointing out the weakness of the Northern Xiongnu and urged that it be destroyed, and that its territories and its inhabitants be given to the Southern Xiongnu. In 89 AD, 8,000 Chinese and 30,000 Southern Xiongnu invaded Northern Mongolia, and the Northern Shanyu fled. The Han court wanted to keep the Xiongnu weak; therefore, it did not support the Southern Xiongnu’s control of Northern Mongolia. Instead, Southern Mongolia was put in the hands of the Southern Xiongnu, and Northern Mongolia was put in the hands of the Xianbei. Then, the Xianbei became a great power. This ended the Xiongnu's domination on the steppe. 

Later, towards the end of the Eastern Han era, the Han asked the Shanyu of the Southern Xiongnu for support in suppressing rebellions. The Shanyu agreed, but then he was murdered by some of his own subjects. The murdered Shanyu’s son succeeded him, but was soon overthrown by the same faction. Then, the Shanyu and his followers settled in Shanxi. He died in 195 AD, and he was succeeded by his brother. 

During the battle of the warlords, for power, many of the Xiongnu supported Yuan Shao. However, in 216 AD, Cao Cao was victorious over most of the other warlords. Cao Cao detained the new Shanyu in the city of Ye, and he divided his followers (in Shanxi) into five divisions, in order to prevent them from rebelling. Then, Cao Cao used the Xiongnu in his cavalry.

Eventually, the Xiongnu aristocracy (in Shanxi) changed their surname to Liu. Their descendents would establish short lived kingdoms in Northern China during the Sixteen Kingdoms Period (304-439 AD). 

A Note on the Western Huns

One source stated that the Western Huns were derived from the Western (Right) wing of the Xiongnu. It is further stated that the Eastern (Left) wing separated into the Northern Xiongnu and the Southern Xiongnu. Other sources state that the Northern Xiongnu (which was derived from the Eastern Xiongnu) was involved in the initial migration Westward. (It is stated that latter segments of the Northern Xiongnu migrated Westward.) Additionally, other sources state that segments of the Southern Xiongnu defected, and went Westward, when the Southern Xiongnu started its decline. It is also stated that these various segments joined up. It is further stated that these Xiongnu divisions, eventually, reached the area North of the Black Sea. It is also stated that by 400 AD, the ranks of the Huns, North of the Black Sea, had swelled to such proportions that they began to overflow into the plains of Pannonia. Various Germanic tribes, who were living there, were either swept aside, or absorbed into this new Hunnic empire (as vassals), or they fell back against the Roman borders. Meanwhile, the Huns, on the steppes of the Black Sea, began to disintegrate, because of civil strife. 

Note that In 420 AD, the Western Hun rulers were Oktar (Khan/Kagan Oktar), Ruga (Yabgu Ruga), and Mundzuk. In 433 to 434 AD, the Akatzirs were subjects of the Western Huns, under Hunnish Kagan Ruga. Around this time, Atilla appeared on the scene. 

It is stated that the Akatzirs (Khazars) were Attila's tributaries, and that they followed banners of Attila. They also fought on the Catalanian fields in the company of the Black Huns (Koturgurs/Kara Bulgars) and the Alans. When Ruga died (who was Bleda's and Atilla's uncle), it marked the beginning of the joint rule of Atilla and Bleda.

It has also been stated, that when Mundzuk died (which contradicts other sources that claim that he temporarily became the Hun Khan/Khagen, but that he was suspected of killing his brother Ruga, whereby he was exiled), his son Bleda became the Khan/Kagan, and the ruler of Left Wing of the Huns (which included the Uturgurs/Ak Bulgar). Then, Attila (who was Bleda's brother) became the ruler (Yabgu) of the Right Wing of the Huns (which included the Koturgurs/Kara Bulgar). Later, Atilla became the Khan/Khagen of the Huns, after the death of his brother Bleda.

[Note that some titles, that were used in the Xiongnu, were no longer used by the Western Huns, and that some of the other titles were replaced with other ones. However, a Khan is a Chief (Chieftain), and the elite rulers of the Huns were Chiefs. As was stated, these Chiefs held specific titles, or they were referred to by those titles. One can think of the positions, that were held by the Chiefs, as representing different Chief ranks, with some Chiefs being higher than other ones.]

[See the section on, "The Akatzirs," and the section on, "The End of the Hunnic Empire."]

It is stated, that after the death of Atilla (453 AD), most of the Huns were driven from Pannonia. The Huns were known to have moved Eastward, where they were absorbed (assimilated) into other groups. They went Eastward, to the North Pontic region, where they merged with other pastoral peoples. It is further stated that surviving Huns settled in Scythia, and that they merged with the Bulgars. Great Bulgaria incorporated a large mix of peoples. This mix probably included the various survivors of the Huns.

(In relation to this, note that Great Bulgaria was located in Scythia, in the area of Sarmatia. The North Pontic Region included the Sarmatia region, in Scythia, that the Bulgars and Great Bulgaria were located within. All of this is located in the area just above the Black Sea. That is North-East from Panomia. On a map of Old Great Bulgaria, the Huns are located in an area that is South-East of Old Great Bulgaria, and just under the region of the Khazars.)

Another source states, that after the death of Attila, a part of the Huns left for the territory of Italy, while another part went to the Balkan peninsula, and a third remained in Pannonia, on the left bank of the Danube. However, it is further stated that at the end of the 450s, and through the beginning of the 460s, many Hun peoples returned to the Northern Pontic region, Northern Meotia, and the Kuban steppes.

A Note on the Hunnic Language 

The Hunnic Empire ruled much of Eastern Europe, and invaded the West during the 4th and 5th centuries. The Hunnic language (Hunnish) was the language that was spoken by the Huns in the Hunnic Empire. Evidence about their language is limited, consisting almost entirely of proper names. Therefore, the Hunnic language cannot be classified at present. 

It has been suggested that the Hunnic language was related to that of the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu) of Mongolia, whose language is also of unknown affiliations. Some scholars have suggested that a Yeniseian language was a major source of both the Xiongnu and Hunnic languages. It is further stated that an increasing number of linguists have demonstrated that the basis of the Turkic and the Mongolian languages was the language of the Huns. (So-called Hun words also appear in the Mongolian and Turkic languages.)

It is stated, that it is possible that a written form of the Hunnic language existed, and that it may yet be identified from artifacts.

Notes

It is stated that the House of Huns, from Shun-wei to Toumen, and for more than a thousand years, and at various times, either rose, fell, divided, or dispersed. Therefore, the order of their past successions cannot be determined during that period.

The Huns developed warfare strategies; techniques for handling horses in warfare; and the reflex bow.

The Xiongnu were fierce mounted warriors. It is stated that there were around 50 million Chinese, while the Xiongnu numbered around 1 million. Of the latter, about 300,000 were warriors.

Much of what is known about the Xiongnu was documented by the Chinese. 

It is stated that the Yeniseian element retained a dominant role in the Southern Xiongnu, right into the 4th century AD.

When peace agreements were made between the Xiongnu and the Chinese, Chinese goods were often sent to the elite members of the Xiongnu, in the form of tribute payments. This practice of acquiring tributes continued with the Western Huns, who also received tribute payments from the Romans.

References

Amster, Martin. (2005). From Silk to Oil: A Curriculum Guide for Educators. China Institute.

Broderick, Lee, and, Houle, Jean-Luc. (2015). Settlement Patterns and Domestic Economy of the Xiongnu in Khanui Valley, Mongolia. www.academia.edu/836614/Settlement_Patterns_and_Domestic_Economy_of_the_Xiongnu_in_Khanuy_Valley_Mongolia.

Hite, Emma. (2013). Sites of the living, sites of the dead: the Xiongnu community at Baruun Mukhdagiin Am. The University of Chicago.

https://socialsciences.uchicago.edu/blog/student/Sites-of-the-living-sites-of-the-dead.

Kim, Hyun. (2013). The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe. Cambridge University Press.

Makarewicz, Cheryl. (2015). Xiongnu Pastoral Systems--Integrating Economies of Subsistence and Scale. http://www.academia.edu/.

Miller, Bryan. (2009). Power Politics in the Xiongnu Empire. University of Pennsylvania.

Ronfeldt, David. (2006). In Search of How Societies Work: Tribes--The First and Forever Form. Prepared for the RAND Pardee Center. [Working Paper].

Turchin, Peter. (2008). A theory for the formation of large agrarian empires. University of Connecticut.

J.L.