A. History and fundamental theories of the discipline

I have provided an assignment from my communication theory course, COM 387, which applies the theory of rhetoric, conceptualized by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, to Richard Nixon's "Checker's Speech." President Nixon delivered the speech after allegedly allocating funds to reimburse himself for political expenses and implemented rhetoric to appeal to his audience. Rhetoric consists of three appeals: logos, ethos, and pathos. Aristotle theorized that using some form of logic, emotion, or credibility within a public speech will allow the orator to appeal to his or her audience. Not only is this one of the oldest theories in the field of communication, but it is also foundational to the discipline. Many communication theories have built upon the theory of rhetoric. Rhetoric, as a theory, has also stood the test of time as communication scholars have found little to critique. I discuss how Aristotle conceived of these appeals and then identify specific phrases Nixon used that employed rhetoric. In doing so, I identify specific history of the theory of rhetoric in its ancient conceptualization and analyze its twentieth-century implementation.

Kennan Martin

COM 387

HW #3

Applying the Rhetoric of Aristotle to Richard Nixon’s “Checkers Speech”

1. Logos is “logical proof, which comes from the line of argument in a speech” (Griffin, Ledbetter, & Sparks, 2015).
   1. Syllogism is a line of deductive reasoning which draws a conclusion from accepted major and minor premises. In his speech, Nixon advocates for Dwight Eisenhower to “clean up the mess” in Washington. Nixon states, “American casualties isn't good enough for America. And I say that those in the State Department that made the mistakes which caused that war and which resulted in those losses should be kicked out of the State Department just as fast as we get them out of there. And let me say that I know Mr. Stevenson won't do that because he defends the Truman policy, and I know that Dwight Eisenhower will do that, and that he will give America the leadership that it needs. Take the problem of corruption. You've read about the mess in Washington. Mr. Stevenson can't clean it up because he was picked by the man, Truman, under whose Administration the mess was made. You wouldn't trust the man who made the mess to clean it up. That's Truman. And by the same token you can't trust the man who was picked by the man who made the mess to clean it up and that's Stevenson. And so I say, Eisenhower, who owes nothing to Truman, nothing to the big city bosses -- he is the man that can clean up the mess in Washington” (Nixon, 1952). Nixon makes a logical syllogism as he sets up a major and minor premise as well as a conclusion. The major premise of his argument is that you cannot trust someone who made the mess in Washington to clean it up. The minor premise is that Truman or Stevenson were involved in making the mess. The conclusion is that Eisenhower is the only one fit to “clean up the mess” because Truman and Stevenson cannot be trusted to clean up the mess they made.
   2. Enthymeme is “an incomplete version of a formal deductive syllogism that is created by leaving out a premise already accepted by the audience or by leaving an obvious conclusion unstated” (Griffin, Ledbetter, & Sparks, 2015). In his speech, Nixon deduces an argument that taxpayers should not have to fund items that are not official business but primarily political business by asking multiple questions, leading to his conclusion. He states, “Do you think that when I or any other senator makes a political speech, has it printed, should charge the printing of that speech and the mailing of that speech to the taxpayers? Do you think, for example, when I or any other Senator makes a trip to his home State to make a purely political speech that the cost of that trip should be charged to the taxpayers? Do you think when a Senator makes political broadcasts or political television broadcasts, radio or television, that the expense of those broadcasts should be charged to the taxpayers? Well I know what your answer is. It's the same answer that audiences give me whenever I discuss this particular problem: The answer is no” (Nixon, 1952). By asking these questions, Nixon sets up an accepted premise in the minds of the audience which leads logically to his stated conclusion. The conclusion Nixon makes is that “The taxpayers shouldn't be required to finance items which are not official business but which are primarily political business” (Nixon, 1952). The unspoken premise is that taxpayers should not be charged extra for political business expenses that the government does not cover.
2. Ethos is “perceived credibility, which comes from the speaker’s intelligence, character, and goodwill toward the audience, as these personal characteristics are revealed through the message” (Griffin, Ledbetter, & Sparks, 2015).
   1. Intelligence “has more to do with practical wisdom (phronesis) and shared values than it does with training...Audiences judge intelligence by the overlap between their beliefs and the speaker’s ideas” (Griffin, Ledbetter, & Sparks, 2015). Nixon demonstrates this appeal when he cites an audit by “the Price Waterhouse & Co. firm, and the legal opinion by Gibson, Dunn, & Crutcher, lawyers in Los Angeles, the biggest law firm, and incidentally, one of the best ones in Los Angeles” (Nixon, 1952). As one of the best law firms in Los Angeles, Nixon emphasizes the credibility of the firm in support of his argument that he did not obtain financial gain from a fund by Dana Smith. The audience identified with and valued the professional opinion within the audit report. Furthermore, Nixon also references former president Abraham Lincoln. Nixon notes that, “I also feel that it's essential in this country of ours that a man of modest means can also run for President, because, you know, remember Abraham Lincoln, you remember what he said: ‘God must have loved the common people -- he made so many of them’” (Nixon, 1952). By citing Lincoln’s reference to God, Nixon encourages the audience to agree with him as Lincoln was a revered president.
   2. Character “has to do with the speaker’s image as a good and honest person” (Griffin, Ledbetter, & Sparks, 2015). Nixon improves his image as a good and honest person when he is completely transparent with his finances and humble lifestyle to his audience. Nixon reveals, “And so now, that I am going to do -- and incidentally this is unprecedented in the history of American politics -- I am going at this time to give to this television and radio audience, a complete financial history, everything I've earned, everything I've spent, everything I own. And I want you to know the facts” (Nixon, 1952). In revealing his complete financial history, Nixon demonstrates that he is open, upfront, and trustworthy, undisguised despite what any smear may obscure.
   3. Goodwill “is a positive judgement of the speaker’s intention toward the audience” (Griffin, Ledbetter, & Sparks, 2015). Nixon sets up his entire speech as a completely authentic account of his expenses and his life. Nixon relates that while laying out all of that information is not easy, he did it for the good of the audience, so they could realize that he is not untrustworthy. He states, “It isn't easy to come before a nationwide audience and bare your life, as I've done. But I want to say some things before I conclude, that I think most of you will agree on...Why do I feel so deeply? Why do I feel that in spite of the smears, the misunderstanding, the necessity for a man to come up here and bare his soul as I have? Why is it necessary for me to continue this fight? And I want to tell you why. Because, you see, I love my country. ” (Nixon, 1952). By doing so, Nixon communicates his well-intentioned initiative to clear his name and expose corruption out of love for his country.
3. Pathos is “emotional proof, which comes from the feelings the speech draws out of those who hear it” (Griffin, Ledbetter, & Sparks, 2015).
   1. Aristotle offered pathos “not to take advantage of an audience’s destructive emotions, but as a corrective measure that could help a speaker craft emotional appeals that inspire reasoned civic decision making” as a call to action (Griffin, Ledbetter, & Sparks, 2015). In conclusion of his speech, Nixon tells his audience that despite the outcome, he will not quit. He aims to defend his beloved country, and in doing so, he rallies the audience to vote for Eisenhower. Nixon states, “But just let me say this last word. Regardless of what happens, I'm going to continue this fight. I'm going to campaign up and down in America until we drive the crooks and the Communists and those that defend them out of Washington. And remember folks, Eisenhower is a great man, believe me. He's a great man. And a vote for Eisenhower is a vote for what's good for America” (Nixon, 1952). In an emotional call to action, Nixon riles up the audience using their want to protect their country, their anger towards crooks, and their admiration for a great man like Eisenhower who they believe will improve their lives.
   2. Aristotle “catalogued as a series of ‘opposite feelings’, then explained the conditions under which each mood is experienced, and finally described how the speaker can get an audience to feel that way” (Griffin, Ledbetter, & Sparks, 2015). Nixon appeals to these strong emotions when he highlights the love for his country and uses Communists as a common enemy that his audience can use to create solidarity in their negative attitudes towards communism. Nixon says, “I love my country. And I think my country is in danger. And I think the only man that can save America at this time is the man that's running for President, on my ticket -- Dwight Eisenhower. You say, ‘Why do I think it is in danger?’ And I say, look at the record. Seven years of the Truman-Acheson Administration, and what's happened? Six hundred million people lost to Communists” (Nixon, 1952). Nixon does well to appeal to the emotions of love versus hate as he aligns his own love of the United States and distaste for Communism with that of the American people.

Work Cited

Griffin, E. A., Ledbetter, A., & Sparks, G. G. (2015). A first look at communication theory. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

Nixon, Richard M. (1952, October 15). Checkers speech. Vital Speeches of the Day. pp. 11-15.