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The development of L2 phonological awareness
Research on L2 phonological awareness is still in its infancy and we have no empirical evidence on how L2 phonological awareness develops. However, as L2 phonological awareness, by definition, is language-specific, we expect that it develops, at least partially, through L2 experience and use (Piske, 2008). It is also possible that L2 phonological awareness shares some common ground with implicit L1 phonological awareness (more about the relation between L1 and L2 phonological awareness in here). Phonological awareness most likely benefits from explicit phonetics instruction as testified by numerous training studies (e.g., Aliaga-García & Mora, 2009; Cebrian & Carlet, 2014; Rato, 2013). Nevertheless, most of the language learners are not exposed to explicit phonetics and phonology instruction.
In this section, following the connectionist account on language learning and applying the Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt, 1995 and elsewhere) to L2 speech learning, I will put forward the idea that L2 phonological awareness develops through conscious noticing and results in proceduralized knowledge about L2 pronunciation.
Conscious noticing as the initial step
Whereas the L1 phonology is acquired incidentally and without conscious attention to the phonological form, L2 phonology is acquired through conscious noticing. This is because the implicit learning mechanisms used in L1 learning are not likely to be available or optimal anymore in adult learning (Abrahamsson, 2012; Ellis, 2005, 2008). In order to develop accurate L2 phonetic categories, the adult L2 learners need to consciously notice the form in the L2 phonology and consciously notice the gap between their interlanguage perception/production and the target language (Schmidt, 1995). In this sense, L2 learning is explicit in the sense of requiring conscious attention during the initial input-to-intake stage of learning.
When we talk about explicit learning, we do not refer to explicit teaching or instruction- the vast majority of L2 learners have never been taught phonology. Likewise, most of the language learners would find it very hard to pinpoint the exact moment of noticing of a given phonological feature. However, if at some earlier point in our L2 learning trajectory, we have not paid conscious attention (noticing) to the target phonological form, we will not acquire it (Schmidt, 1995, and elsewhere).
Fluency as a result of practice
In order for the L2 speech to be delivered fluently, the explicitly acquired phonological information needs to go through extensive unconscious processing during which the learnt information is strengthened and chunked together with associated pieces of information (contextually coded exemplars) (Ellis, 2002, 2005). The information thus becomes proceduralized and cannot be distinguished in behavior from implicit knowledge: it is applied fast and automatically and it cannot be verbalized (Ellis, 2004; Kormos, 2006: 41). This partly explains why language users know so much about the phonology of their L1 and L2 as evident in their accurate speech perception and production, but are yet unable to verbalize pronunciation rules.
Thus, consciousness in the form of noticing in the initial stage is required, but the consolidated memory representations are predominantly proceduralized, rather than declarative. In most cases, the learner is not likely to retain the original explicit representation present at the moment of noticing. Instead it is most likely to be further processed through subsequent encounters with the same or similar stimulus leading to its gradual strengthening and most likely to noticing of additional aspects. Exposure to more and more accurate exemplars through input leads to the constant development of the learner’s phonology.
Adapted from Kivistö-de Souza (2015)
Abrahamsson, N. (2012). Age of onset and nativelike L2 ultimate attainment of morphosyntactic and phonetic intuition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34, 187-214.
Aliaga-García, C., Mora, J. C. (2009). Assessing the effects of phonetic training on L2 sound perception and production. In M.A. Watkins, A. Rauber, & B. O. Baptista (Eds.), Recent research in second language phonetics/phonology: Perception and production (pp. 2-31). Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars.
Cebrian, J. Carlet, A. (2014). Second language learners’ identification of target language phonemes: A short-term phonetic training study. Canadian Modern Language Review, 70, 474 – 499.
Ellis, N. C. (2002). Frequency effects in language processing: A review with implications for theories of implicit and explicit language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24, 143-188.
Ellis, N. C. (2005). At the interface: Dynamic interactions of explicit and implicit language knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27, 305-352.
Ellis, N. C. (2008). Implicit and explicit knowledge about language. In J. Cenoz & N. H. Hornberger (Eds), Encyclopedia of language and education), volume 6: Knowledge about Language (2nd ed.) (pp. 1-13). New York: Springer.
Ellis, R. (2004). The definition and measurement of L2 explicit knowledge. Language Learning. 54, 227-275.
Kivistö-de Souza, H. (2015). Phonological awareness and pronunciation in a second language (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Universitat de Barcelona, Spain.
Kormos, J. (2006). Speech production and second language acquisition. New York: Routledge.
Piske, T. (2008). Phonetic awareness, phonetic sensitivity and the second language learner. In J. Cenoz & N. H. Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education Vol. 6: Knowledge about language (pp. 155-166). New York: Springer Science.
Rato, A. (2013). Cross-language perception and production of English vowels by Portuguese learners: The effects of perceptual training (Unpublished Doctoral dissertation). University of Minho, Minho.
Schmidt, R. (1995). Consciousness and foreign language learning: a tutorial on the role of attention and awareness in learning. In Schmidt, R. (Ed.), Attention and awareness (pp. 1-63). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai`i, National Foreign Language Resource Center.
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