Chapter 16: Exploration and Expansion
Section 1 - Scientific Revolution
1. What role did the Renaissance play in the development of science?
2. Why did the study of nature change during the 1500s and the 1600s?
3. How did the work of early scientists during the Scientific Revolution lay the foundation for modern science?
4. Why did so many important scientific advances take place in so brief a period of time?
Roger Bacon: English philosopher and scientist who was one of the earliest to favor a system of scientific experimentation as a means of finding truth
Scientific Revolution: Transformation in thinking that occurred during the 1500s and 1600s caused by scientific observation, experimentation, and the questioning of traditional opinions
scientific method: Method of inquiry that includes carefully conducted experiments and mathematical calculations to verify the results of experiments
geocentric theory: Theory of Ptolemy that Earth is the center of the universe
Nicolaus Copernicus: Polish scientist who developed the theory that the sun is the center of the universe
heliocentric theory: Theory developed by Copernicus that the sun is the center of the universe
Johannes Kepler: German astronomer and mathematician who proved Copernicus’s heliocentric theory and discovered three laws about how planets move in space
Galileo Galilei: Italian scientist who built the first telescope, observed the motion of the planets, and showed that they moved around the sun
Isaac Newton: English scientist who discovered the law of gravity Andreas Vesalius: Flemish scientist who pioneered the study of anatomy
René Descartes: French philosopher and mathematician who was a leader of the Scientific Revolution and argued that all assumptions had to be proven on the basis of known facts
Francis Bacon: English philosopher and scientist who argued that scientific theories could be developed only through observation and proven only by repeatable experiments
Robert Boyle: English-Irish scientist who pioneered the modern science of chemistry
[Chapter 16] Exploration and Expansion
The Protestant Reformation of the 1500s led to new social, political, and economic
patterns across Europe. The Reformation challenged traditional approaches to religious
thought and the individual’s role in society. During this same era, new ways of studying
and understanding the natural world brought about a scientific revolution. In this chapter,
you will learn about the causes of this revolution in thought. You will also learn how it led
to European exploration and expansion.
Exploration and Expansion
Section 1 Summary
Until the 1500s, many people relied on religious teachings and works of Greek and
Roman thinkers to explain nature. Roger Bacon, an English philosopher and scientist,
was one of the earliest to favor a system of scientific experimentation as a means of finding
truth.
The Renaissance encouraged curiosity, investigation, discovery, and practical
applications of knowledge to everyday life. People felt freer to question old beliefs and use
new approaches to answer questions about the natural world. The Scientific Revolution
was a transformation in thinking that occurred during the 1500s and 1600s, caused by
scientific observation, experimentation, and the questioning of traditional opinions.
Early scientists used three new tools to study the world—scientific instruments,
mathematics, and experiments. Scientists observed and measured using new instruments
such as the barometer, microscope, telescope, air pump, and thermometer. They used
mathematics to check and apply measurements. They repeated their experiments to see
whether results changed. This method of inquiry, involving carefully conducted
experiments and mathematical calculations to verify the results of experiments, is called
the scientific method.
This new approach produced great advances, especially in astronomy, physics,
and anatomy. Until the 1500s, people still believed in Ptolemy’s geocentric theory that
Earth was the center of the universe. Then Polish scientist Nicolaus Copernicus
developed the heliocentric theory that the sun is the center of the universe. German
astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler used models, observation, and
mathematics to prove Copernicus’s heliocentric theory. He discovered three “laws” about
how planets move in space. Galileo Galilei, an Italian scientist, built the first telescope,
observed the motion of the planets, and showed that they moved around the sun. Because
Galileo’s theory contradicted the Bible, the church banned his works. Galileo’s
discoveries form the basis for the science of mechanics, the study of objects in motion.
English scientist Isaac Newton published a book explaining why the planets
moved as they did. Newton proposed the law of universal gravitation, or gravity, which
states that all bodies attract each other. Newton’s laws of motion and gravitation are
applied in technology from seatbelts to space travel.
Flemish scientist Andreas Vesalius pioneered the study of anatomy. He did
studies to see how the human body was constructed and published a seven-volume book
with detailed illustrations. English physician William Harvey studied the circulation of
blood and described the roles of veins, arteries, and the heart.
News of these discoveries spread rapidly throughout Europe. Like religious orders
that spread church teachings, new scientific “orders” spread scientific knowledge.
Scientific schools and societies appeared. The printing press helped spread scientific
knowledge through books and journals.
French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes was a leader of the
Scientific Revolution whose ideas led to great advances in mathematics, the sciences, and
philosophy. Descartes believed that all assumptions had to be proven on the basis of
known facts. Starting with the truth “I think, therefore I am,” Descartes built a clear,
orderly progression of logical reasoning. In contrast, English philosopher and scientist
Francis Bacon argued that scientific theories could be developed only through
observation and proven only by repeatable experiments.
Many other scientific discoveries were made throughout Europe. German scholar
Gottfried Liebnitz (LIP·nits) and English thinker Isaac Newton developed calculus, a new
branch of mathematics. Dutch scientists Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (LAY·ven·hook) used the
microscope to discover bacteria. An English-Irish scientist, Robert Boyle, pioneered the
modern science of chemistry. An English chemist, Joseph Priestley, discovered oxygen.
French scientist Antoine Lavoisier (luhv·WAHZ·ee·ay) proved that matter can change form,
but can neither be destroyed nor created.
By the 1700s the scientific approach had spread across Europe. Knowledge had
vastly increased in a brief time. New forms of communication such as the printing press
and the rise of scientific societies helped spread knowledge. The speed of discoveries,
rapid spread of knowledge, and exchange of ideas were characteristics of the Scientific
Revolution.
Chapter 16: Exploration and Expansion
Section 1
1. What role did the Renaissance play in the development of science?
· The Renaissance helped lead to the development of science because it encouraged curiosity, investigation, discovery, and practical applications of knowledge about nature to everyday life. People felt freer to question old beliefs and use new approaches to answer questions about the natural world.
2. Why did the study of nature change during the 1500s and the 1600s?
· The study of nature changed during the 1500s and the 1600s because scientists used three new tools to study the world—scientific instruments, mathematics, and experiments. They used the method of inquiry known as the scientific method.
3. How did the work of early scientists during the Scientific Revolution lay the foundation for modern science?
· Early scientists during the Scientific Revolution laid the foundation for modern science by introducing a new approach to knowledge based on observation, not faith. These scientists also developed new methods for scientific exploration and invented new instruments.
4. Why did so many important scientific advances take place in so brief a period of time?
· Many important scientific advances took place in a brief period of time because new scientific “orders” spread scientific knowledge. Scientific schools and societies appeared. The printing press helped spread scientific knowledge through books and journals.