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Discovery
At Lake Neuchatel, Switzerland, lowering waters following the severe winter of 1853-4 uncovered a large number of artifacts of a new Celtic school at a site called La Tène ("the Shallows").
In 1857, Col. Friedrich Schwab, a military engineer, engaged in excavations, which yielded more artifacts.
During further excavations in 1880-85, and 1907-17, many thousands of goods were brought to light, including over 2500 swords and scabbards, other weapons, utensils, and other items. These were possibly votive offerings, as many had been bent or broken, perhaps to ritually "kill" them.
Artifacts from the site at Waldalgesheim (middle Rhine, Germany) typify the epitome of this school. Many goods of unparalleled genius were uncovered. This was possibly the site of a master craftsman or school.
The La Tène style, modified by other influences, continued late in Ireland & Britain. Examples include the Tara Brooch & Ardagh Chalice (c.750 AD)
Art of this period showed a dramatic change from that of the Hallstatt. It is characterized by fluidity and plasticicity, It is curvilinear, and somewhat surreal in appearance. It would not be out of place in an exhibition of modern art.
It is believed that assimilation of Mediterranean and other influences at this period hastened the change in art from the geometric Hallstatt style to the fluid La Tène. Vegetal motifs such as the "Tree of Life", probably originally Middle Eastern, appear at this time. However the changes came, the Celts assimilated them and made them uniquely their own.
As with Hallstatt art, most of the remains are of metal, stone, or other durable materials. We have no painting to examine, though it seems likely they may have practiced some forms of decoration in their habitations. We do have some bone work from Ireland in late La Tène style, seemingly practice or trial pieces.
Many pieces are concerned with war, personal adornment or horse and chariot ornamentation, and drinking or feasting. It is here that we also see highly decorative bronze mirrors and other feminine articles, possibly introduced from Etruria or Greece.
About the third century BC, a school known as the "Danubian" came into being. It was a blend of Black Sea and Mediterranean influences, characterized by full-modeled pseudo-filigree jewelry with knobby protrusions, baroque relief-work, and spirals. Bronze casting reached exceptional heights of virtuosity. Other influences on art at this time came from Greece, and the region now known as Hungary.
La Tène technology incorporated advanced iron working, with improvements on existing levels. Innovations enabled them to keep the technical edge gained by their Hallstatt predecessors.
The economy continued to be based on pastoral agrarian practices, and trade continued and increased, after a period of disruption between the decline of the Hallstatt chiefs and the rise of the La Tene culture.
The Early Iron Age princes seem to have lost their hold after two or three generations, though a few centers (such as Hohenasberg) held for a short time. The tendency of the leadership to be rural-based warrior chieftains increased as the old trade centers collapsed.
After a period of readjustment, the 5th and early 4th centuries BC seem to have been a period of (relative) stability and prosperity.
The social system remained that of a tripartite warrior aristocracy, as in Hallstatt times. It appears to have been somewhat more egalitarian, judging by the nature of the burials. (Few or no major inhumations compare with the barrow graves of earlier times, and only a relatively few obviously wealthy and powerful men are marked by spectacular graves.
So far as can be ascertained from Celtic literature and other sources, youths first took arms and began training at about age seven, and by their teens were considered warriors. Thus they were bred for combat from an early age.
The poetry was of the bardic type, and consisted in great part of eulogies and elegies extolling the virtues of heroic leaders and warriors. This trend continued in Scots Gaelic poetry until the 18th century AD (More of this will be covered in the section on Music).
When the Celts met Alexander the Great (c. 335 BC), he asked what they feared most (perhaps expecting to hear that it was himself). But they answered; "We fear nothing, only that the sky should fall upon our heads and crush us, the sea rise up and overwhelm us, or that the earth should open up and swallow us!"
Alexander called them friends, made them allies, and then left, remarking that these Celts were great boasters. This trait was commented on by other Classical writers, "...people of great stature and haughty disposition." (Arrian); and we also see it in the extant Celtic oral literature. It is especially apparent in hero tales like the Irish epic, "Tain Bo Cuailgne" (Cattle Raid of Cooley), or "Sgeula Mucce Mac Da Tho" (Story of Mac Datho's Pig").
This was doubtless a prominent trait, as it was in warrior societies around the world in all ages. However, the Celtic warriors were deadly fighters, well capable of fulfilling those boasts, as the heads of their enemies festooned from their saddle-bows or displayed on stakes in their villages testified.
It is from this period that we have many of our Classical commentaries. The historic record includes Poseidonius (quoted and plagiarized extensively by his successors) to Caesar. Tacitus wrote on customs and culture. Ethnographers and historians remained fascinated with the Celts. As mentioned earlier, we are told they were; "...quick of mind, and with a good natural ability for learning." (Diodorus Siculus)
Their druids were considered great "natural philosophers", and their skill with herbal remedies and medicines was renowned. One of their chiefs discoursed to the Roman Senate, themselves no mean orators, holding them spellbound for hours.
They seemed very sexually uninhibited to the Greeks and the Romans. Once, it is said, a Celtic noblewoman was berated by Roman women about Celtic promiscuity. She disdainfully replied; "We consort with the noblest openly, while you debauch yourselves with the vilest in secret!"
The La Tène culture flourished. At its peak (c. 300 BC), the Celts were the masters of Europe. Over 800,000 square miles were under their control, ranging from Jutland in Denmark, to North Italy, and even a colony in Asia Minor, called Galatia. (Modern Turkey). Following the death of Alexander and dissolution of his empire, and the ensuing conflicts among the Greek states, they expanded into areas formerly barred by Macedonia.
They sacked Rome (c. 390 BC) and Delphi (c. 279 BC). The leader of the Celts in both expeditions were said to have been named "Brennus". Obviously, the time span is too great for it to have been one man. However, this may have been a title, the name of a tribal god, or a personal sobriquet. It may be cognate with the Welsh "Bran", a euhemerized god who appears as a giant hero-leader in the "Mabinogion" (a late collection of Welsh heroic literature and myths descended from much earlier pagan beliefs).
(Note: Among the ancient Celts, as among other tribal people, it was customary to have a boyhood name, which would be replaced by an "adult" name or sobriquet upon reaching manhood. An interesting parallel in some primitive societies is the concept of a "public" and "private" name, i.e. a secret "true" name, which, if known, is thought to confer magical power over the person. In some societies, this can extend to a different name for family, another for fellow tribesmen, and yet another for those from outwith the clan.)
There are also interesting stories associated with the Gaulish expedition that took Rome. One concerns a Roman, Marcus Papirius, who, according to Livy (59 BC - AD 17), left his mansion open to the invaders, and with some other senior men, remained seated in his toga, bearing only an ivory staff.
The Celts, already somewhat overwhelmed with the city and its works, at first did not know whether he was real, or another statue, or some being of "superhuman grandeur." Finally, one Celt essayed to tug at the Roman's beard.., whereupon Papirius hit him over the head with the staff for his temerity. This broke the spell, and Papirius, with the others, was slain in his chair.
It is also related that the Celts failed to take the Capitoline in a night assault, because of the racket set up by the geese at a temple alerted the Romans to the danger.
Another tale tells us that when the Romans balked at using the Celt's scales to measure the gold to be paid to ransom the city, saying that they were inaccurate, Brennus threw his long sword on the weight side of the scales saying; "Vae Victus!" ("Woe to the vanquished!")
Eventually, however, despite these stunning victories, the tide turned. Due to many factors (no central government, no concerted army command or team combat tradition) They were slowly pushed back and conquered by the Romans, who had gotten quite a fright from their drubbing. Ever after, they sought to destroy these fierce, dangerous, and mercurial people once and for all.
Previously, the Romans had dealt thus with the threat from Hannibal Barca, the great Carthaginian general, and his Gaulish and Celt-Iberian allies in the Third Punic War.
As with the Carthaginians, it had to be all or nothing, a Celtic version of "Carthago delendo est." ("Carthage is destroyed.", the message sent back after its capture and destruction by Scipio.)
Accordingly, the Romans learned to deal with the terrifying physical size, appearance, and "shock" charge tactics of the Gauls, assimilating the best of the Gaulish arsenal, and used the old tactics of "divide and conquer". (All too easy with the highly individualistic Celts.)
The battle of Telamon (c. 225 BC) in Etruria signaled the beginning of the end for the Gauls in Italy. Though they fought hard and bravely, in the end they were defeated.
With the capture of Mediolanum (modern Milan) c. 222 BC, the main wars in Italy were over. "Gallia Cisalpina" ("Gaul this side of the Alps"), which the Gauls had captured from the old Etruscans, was conquered and subjugated in its turn by Rome in the early 2nd century BC After 70 years of resistance, the Iberian peninsula also submitted.
On the southern coast of Gaul, the old Greek trading colony of Massilia (modern Marseilles), was now allied to Rome. Beginning in 155 BC, Massilia appealed to Rome for "assistance" with her problems with the Gauls. By 122 BC, Rome had made a conquest of the whole area, known as "Gallia Narbonensis", or "Provincia" (modern Provence). The port of Narbo (modern Narbonne) became its capital.
The Celts were now also receiving pressure on the Eastern front, from Germanic and Celto-Germanic tribes, including the Cimbri, Suevi, and Teutons. They also had problems with the Dacians (ancestors of the Romanians).
The worst came with Caius Julius Caesar (c. 102 - 44 BC). His version of the campaigns in Gaul are covered in "De Bello Gallico" (The Gallic Wars). Caesar was indeed "ambitious."
As Procurator in Provincia, as Roman Gaul was known, and member of the infamous Triumvirate, he had great expenses. He also intended to secure his political position in Rome. This required money and notoriety. The Gallic Wars gave him the chance to acquire both.
Beginning with the Helvetian campaign (modern Switzerland), he systematically reduced Gaul piece-meal to Roman sway. Where he could, he'd suborn native collaborators, or set tribe against tribe. Yet he didn't have it all his own way. He was kept busy campaigning, and keeping up a propaganda war in Rome.
After his landing in Britain, he returned in late 54 BC to a deteriorating situation in Gaul. A number of tribes, among them the Carnutes, Senones, and Eburones, had conspired to cast off the Roman yoke.
Vercingetorix,(who is portrayed as a character in the popular Asterix cartoons), did exist. a young Arvernian prince, he was a son of Celtillus who had served under Caesar earlier. From the "Commentaries" of Caesar, we learn that Vercingetorix was a tough, intelligent, and brave warrior.
He was declared leader of the Gauls at Bibracte, and decided to pitch his cavalry against the legions of Caesar. Vercingetorix knew that it was vital for the tribes of Gaul unite against the Romans to prevent their armies moving in and seizing Gaul.
His name is as interesting as the man himself. As with "Brennus," it might have been a title rather than his name. It seems to break down thus: "Ver" is cognate with "Vor" (Welsh), and Mor (Gaelic), meaning "big or great"; "Cin" seems cognate with Ceann (G.: head), or with "cinn"(idh) (G.: kin). I am unsure of the next part (geto). The word "Rix", as we have seen, means king. Perhaps "great head king", or "great king of the kindred" might be possible meanings.
A later king of Scotland, who defeated MacBeth and regained his father Duncan's throne, was Malcolm "Ceann-mor" (Big or Great head), which also may have been a title rather than an appellation.
Also of interest is Vercingetorix's father's name. "Celtillus," may contain the root of the word Celt, and thus might point to the naming of the Celts. (As discussed in the first part.)
Under Vercingetorix, the coalition of Gauls fought a long and bitter campaign, at one point almost sweeping Caesar and his forces into the sea.
Eventually, though, the Roman cohesiveness and tactical efficiency prevailed. With his cavalry and infantry, Vercingetorix retreated to Alesia, a place chosen and stocked with provisions in case of retreat.
The actual site of Alesia is under some dispute. Both Alise-St-Reine, near Dijon, and Alaise, 25 km south of Besancon claim that they are the probable site of the famous siege. Archeological evidence indicates that Alise-St-Reine was the probable location.
Alesia (on Mount Auxois), a city of the Mandubii, and Bibracte of the Aeduii (on Mount Beuvray), represented typical population centers of the Gauls of this period. By contact with Greece and Rome, and in view of the unsettled political structure of Gaul, these cities were also fortresses, protected by a wall, the famous "murus Gallicus" ("Gaulish wall").
Measuring about 4 meters in height and thickness, they were constructed of interlocking logs, laid cross-wise, and stone, rubble and earth filling the spaces between. They were faced with earth and stone, and practically impervious to many of the Roman siege and assault weapons and tactics.
Caesar raised two rings of inner and outer fortifications around Alesia to prevent the Gauls from escaping, and relief forces or supplies from entering. Then he waited for their supplies to run out.
During a month of night raids, the Gauls sought out escape routes through the fortifications. There were none. Vercingetorix then tried direct attacks in an attempt to breakout and re-group beyond the Romans. These attempts resulted in several pitched battles, but neither side won a total victory. However, the Gauls remained unable to break the siege.
Reinforcements from other Gaulish tribes converged upon Alesia in an attempt to relieve Vercingetorix, and two battles raged simultaneously - Vercingetorixand his garrison struggling from the inside, and the relief column fighting from the outside.
Caesar, though hard-pressed at times, commanded a brilliant dual defense. His disciplined troops carried the day. This victory ultimately proved fatal for Vercingetorix.
As a veteran of combat, and of siege warfare (Khe Sanh, Viet Nam, 1968), I can say that the frustration and pent-up desire to close with and engage the enemy is at times overwhelming. Some men suffer from despair, and become apathetic. Add to this short water and rations, and the usual miseries of combat, and it can be readily seen that this type of warfare is potentially the worst for a fighting unit. Morale often declines in proportion to the length of the siege.
Eventually, it became apparent that there was no way out for the beleaguered garrison. Vercingetorix is reported by Caesar to have said;
"I did not undertake the war for private ends, but in the cause of national liberty. And since I must now accept my fate, I place myself at your disposal. Make amends to the Romans by killing me or surrender me alive as you think best."
After the surrender, Caesar ordered the Gauls to give up their weapons and their leader.
According to Caesar, Vercingetorix threw down his sword at Caesar's feet. Plutarch describes him as; "A brilliant leader upon a fine horse, bearing great weapons, which he did not relinquish until having ridden around Caesar several times."
Vercingetorix was then imprisoned until Caesar returned to Rome, whereupon he was paraded in chains in Caesar's "triumph", and was thereafter strangled by these "noble" and "civilized" Romans, who some folk seem to revere so highly.
There is an imposing statue of Vercingetorix on top of Mount Auxois in Burgundy, erected in the 19th century as an expression of French nationalism. The statue does not correctly represent the looks of the Gaulish chief, which are unknown, and many details, like the sword, do not date from Gaulish times.
Also, the French are not actually descended from the Celts, but from a Germanic people who took the land in turn from the faltering Romans toward the end of their rule.
But they, like many other European people, are proud of their "Celtic connection", and celebrate the part of their heritage that makes them "Gallic".
However, the intensity of the emotional impact behind this work is perhaps emblematic of the emotions of the great Gauls themselves, part of the greater Celtic people that at one time were the masters of Europe.
This defeat, and those following it, started the long retreat that would never end, pushing the once mighty Celts to the rims of the continent they had dominated, where they would become the "Celtic Fringe", and eventually beyond the sea, scattered to the four corners of the world.
In the next segment, we will examine the Insular Celts.