Hamlet

Act I

Prologue

 1. What is the Ghost wearing when he come on stage? When before, according to Horatio, had he been seen wearing it? 

          The ghost is dressed in complete armor, holding a baton, with his visor raised. This is the warlike uniform that the king used to wear when he was alive.   The vision of the King in this manner raises questions of what his intentions truly are for the Kingdom; is he a ghost of good fortune or a polarizing figure capable of furthering the "eruption" that the court is noticing.

 2. Marcellus asks someone to "tell me.../Why this same strict and most observant watch/ So nightly toils the subject of the land..." What is the answer? 

          They are on a military watch against Fortinbras. The meaning behind this is the issue of revenge that Fortinbras has unleashed upon Denmark.  With the death of King Hamlet I, the proverbial "contract" between him and King Fortinbras (based on a fight to the death between the two) I that declared who would rule the Kingdom is severed in the mind of Fortinbras.  While the watch has the presence of a ghost, it is mainly to be prepared for an inevitable invasion attempt.

 3. What story from the past does Horatio relate? 

          King Hamlet's conquest of lands that once belonged to Norway and how Fortinbras seeks to reconquer them. (see question 3 for lengthier explanation of this event - ed. TPG)

 4. What makes the ghost disappear? 

          The sound of daybreak with the rooster crowing.  The ghost cannot roam the land under daylight, so this creates a device within the plot; daytime equals normalcy, nighttime is when the paranormal rises from slumber.

 5. Note all of the different matters of court business that Claudius attends to at the opening of 1.2. How does he try to comfort Hamlet? Does it work?

          Claudius is talking about a wedding right after a funeral! He is dealing with diplomacy, handling issues with Fortinbras, and acting like the King. Claudius turns to Hamlet and says that everyone loses a father and that having so much grief is unmanly.  This attitude fails to cheer up the depressed prince, whose wrecked state of mind is captured fully in an upcoming soliloquy.

 6. In Hamlet's first soliloquy ("O that this too too solid flesh would melt..."), what does he tell the audience is so upsetting to him? 

             Hamlet is appalled that his mother married so quickly instead of properly mourning the death of her husband. Hamlet does not think that his uncle is as good as his father and he finds his mother's sexual relationship with Claudius to be incestuous. 

 7. "Foul deeds will rise,/ Though all the earth o'erwhelm them, to men's eyes" (1.2.256-7) What does Hamlet mean by this? 

               This is a metaphor of a burial. It anticipates that the burial of Hamlet's father is something that cannot last. Everything about how he died will one day be discovered.  The concept of things rising to the surface after an attempt to be forgotten comes periodically throughout the play.

 8. What advice do both Laertes and Polonius give to Ophelia? 

               The advice they give is to not fall in love Hamlet or take his words of love too seriously and to protect her reputation They want her to stay away from Hamlet and remind her that she is below his class so he probably does not intend to really have a serious relationship with her.

 9. What is particularly "foul, strange, and unnatural" about King Hamlet I's death? (see 1.5.74-79) 

               The King was killed by his brother with poison that was poured into his ear. His body became covered in rashes and crust. Worst of all, he was not given any last rights with a proper christian preparation for death. He died without being able to repent his sins.

 10. What does Hamlet write down after seeing the ghost? Where does he write it? 

                He writes in a notebook that people can smile away but still be villains.

 11. To what oath does Hamlet make Horatio and Marcellus swear?

               They must swear to not talk about the ghost of King Hamlet or about anything they saw happen between Prince Hamlet and the ghost of his father. This is most important to not alert the villain to what is going on.  This immediately creates an alliance between the three characters against King Claudius and the Court.

Main Act

 What does the Ghost mean by 'remember me'?  What else can he be trying to say to Hamlet?

               -Revenge me

                    -or do NOT revenge me?

                    -The concept of revenge is hardly mentioned by the ghost

               -Don't let Claudius take my spot as father or king

               -Remember me and try to be like me

                    -follow my path in life

                    -learn from my mistakes that led to death

          (*Keep in mind while reading through play- Does Hamlet remember his father?)

•  Why wouldn't Hamlet have become king? How old is he?

               -There is no good reason why not

               -He is a young man but not too young to be king. We will find out his age later on in the play

               -indicates a possible scheme beneath the dressing of the royal court

                    -was the ascent of Claudius an inside job?

Transition between Richard III and Hamlet

Villainy- Richard moves into power through fratricide and so does Claudius (killing of their brothers)

 1. Importance of Primogeniture (Legal rules about inheritance)

     -Hamlet should be king, but fails to have his ascent

     -Claudius as king is unnatural, against the rules of primogeniture

     -Richard had to murder his brother and his nephews in order to be king

 2. Threat of Invasion     

     -In Richard III: Threat of invasion from Henry VII/Tudor

     -In Hamlet: Threat of invasion from Fortinbras

 3. Ghosts

     -Ghosts signify disruptions/disorder

     -Omen; supernatural/unnatural

     -Disruptions:

          -"Strange eruption in our state" (1.1.68)

                    -something from below

                         -Volcano metaphor, an uncontrollable destruction

                    -foreign invader (Fortinbras)

                    -sexual context (incest)

                    -cannot be stopped (tragedy)

          -Ghost disrupts night watch

                    -"usurp'st" (1.1.44) 

                    -creates a foreboding atmosphere that leads to the end of Richard and end of Claudius (and/or the Kingdom as a whole?)

 REMINDER

*Hamlet I= Dead former king, Hamlet II= Prince

*Fortinbras I= Dead father, Fortinbras II= Son

  Horatio's speech at 1.1.80-104

                -Fortinbras I challenged Hamlet I 

                    -Both put up land- sealed compact/had rules

                    -Fortinbras I lost land to Hamlet I 

               -Old word= had rules vs. New world= chaos 

  Fortinbras II serves as a foil for Hamlet

               -Both lost inheritance

               -Fortinbras= Leading an army for revenge vs. Hamlet= Will he get revenge?

Hamlet's first soliloquy (1.2.129)

      -Focused/fixated on his mother's sexuality

          -"unweeded garden" (1.2.135) = mother's sexual promiscuity

          -"things rank and gross in nature" (1.2.136) = unnatural/illegitimate growth

               -maybe she was sleeping with Claudius when she was still married to Hamlet I?

               -maybe she had a hand in his death?

               -maybe they have another child who would supersede Hamlet II to the throne?

               -maybe Hamlet I is not his father? 

*fixation on the mother carries Oedipian tones (Shakespeare referencing the Classics!)

 *This is the main problem with primogeniture

     -Needs to be clear lines of inheritance     

•  "the time is out of joint"

               -the process of the Prince becoming King is disrupted

               -Claudius is the cause

                    -Claudius=Villain

 *Viewed a clip from Laurence Olivier's Hamlet:  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gu46pOY0itc (no connection to scene dissected.  purely to capture the tone of Oliver's interpretation of the work)

 The physical construction of the scene (1.2.50-128)

               -Hamlet's distance from the throne

               -Costumes

                    -King's full royal garb

                    -Hamlet's clothes of mourning

               **All aspects of the scene highlight Hamlet's absence of power  

Epilogue

 One can safely say that Hamlet is a play of questions and it is the only play by Shakespeare to actually begin with a question.  Whereas previous plays delivered answers from the start, Hamlet's opening act is an immediate shocker to the audience; the absense of primogeniture, the death of a King, ghosts, a depressed prince, revenge being sought from all corners, etc.  From unanswered questions about fidelity and murder to whether or not Hamlet will revenge his father's death, one can't help but to wonder what the following acts will bring. Will answers be revealed or will a tone of mystery linger throughout the play?  Keep in mind that this is clearly a play about REMEMBERANCE and the consequences of one's way in remembering the past. Are there any questions or concerns that stick out in particular to you? And if so, what are they?

 Besides what was mentioned in class, do you see any other similarities between Richard III and Hamlet?

 What do think about Hamlet's first soliloquy, is he overly fixated on his mother's sexuality or are his feelings justifiable? 

Hamlet Act II, III, and IV

 Hamlet Act II and III Reading Questions and Reponses

1. What is Polonius employing Reynaldo to do? What instructions does he give to him? 

Polonius is employing Reynaldo to go to France to nose around and check up on the doings of Laertes to make sure he is not sullying the family name. Specifically whoring, drinking and gambling, simply by name dropping “Laertes” in public gaining a feel from people’s reactions.

1. What report of Hamlet's behavior does Ophelia give to Polonius in 2.1? What specifically does she tell him about how he was acting? What other words are used to describe Hamlet's behavior (especially his actions) throughout these acts? When Hamlet appears at 2.2.169, how would you characterize his speech? 

Ophelia recounts to her father, Polonius, of Hamlet’s physical actions towards her. She explains how he came in disheveled with his stockings around his ankles and took her by the wrist and just continually stared at her, before he walked out backwards. When Hamlet appears in 2.2 he is exhausted and reading a book, his demeanor in speaking towards Polonius is condescending and could be perceived as mad.

1. What news does King Claudius receive from Norway in 2.2? What is the status of the impending invasion from act 1? 

King Claudius receives word that there will be no war because Fortinbras II’s uncle paid him 3,000 crowns not to fight Denmark. Fortinbras II now needs Denmark to allow him passage in order to fight with Poland.

1. What speech does Hamlet ask the Player to perform in 2.2? What event in history/literature is being recounted in this speech? Who is Pyrrhus? Here is an image of Pyrrhus performing the deed described in the actor's speech. 

Hamlet asks the Player to perform a speech about Prryrus and Priam and then asks the player to move on in the story to the part pertaining to Hecuba. See the speech on Prryrus and Priam here: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jGXogOKLi6I . This speech is referring to the Tojan War a possible reference to Dido. (See footnote 1 in Norton page 1729). Prryrus is the Trojan King, father of Achilles, who is killed by Priam.

1. In his second soliloquy ("O, what a rogue and peasant slave am I"), what is Hamlet's response to the player's speech? What aspect of the Player's speech does he specifically comment on? 

Hamlet’s is truly fascinated by the player’s performance due to the level of emotion conveyed by the player. Hamlet knows that this individual has no real connection to this story yet he acts it out in a way that grasps his audience and makes them put real belief in his false feelings.

1. Does Hamlet behave differently toward Ophelia than Polonius and Laertes? How does he treat her during the "Mousetrap" play that the players perform? 

Hamlet places Ophelia, Polonius and Laertes on the same level showing no respect towards each. Hamlet treats Ophelia as if she was a strumpet (whore). He specifically tells her “Get thee to a nunnery” meaning a whore house. During the “Mousetrap” he is essentially flirting and teasing her clearly exercising his sexual power over her.                                   * see women in Hamlet further down the page*

1. At the end of 3.2, Hamlet "could drink hot blood" (360) as he goes off to visit his mother. On the way, he finds the King in prayer. Why does he not slay him in this moment (3.3.77 ff.)? 

Hamlet chooses not to kill the King because he believes that the King is praying and therefore would go straight to heaven. Due to this belief Hamlet feels killing him now would be much like a favor to King; a good doing. In actuality though, the King is reflecting on the murder of his brother and plotting to kill Hamlet.

1. What is the intended purpose of Hamlet's visit to his mother's chamber? How does he turn the tables on her? What instructions does he give to her? 

Gertrude invites Hamlet to her chambers after being told to by Polonius. Polonius tells Gertrude to tell Hamlet off; to tell him he is getting out line with his thoughts and actions. Hamlet turns the table instantly through parallel structure in the lines:

Gertrude: Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended.

Hamlet: “Mother, you have my father much offended. (3.4.9-10)

Hamlet by doing this puts himself in a position of control over his mother. He uses this time to basically accost her, thus forcing her to face the truth of her actions. He then instructs her to no longer sleep with his uncle and to not say anything to him.

1. What happens to Polonius during the conversation between Hamlet and Gertrude? Who else barges in on their conversation?

Polonius is hiding in the curtain within Gertrude’s chamber. Once Hamlet sees that there is someone behind the curtain he stabs this person killing him through the curtain. The ghost barges to tell Hamlet to ease up a little on his mother and to stay focused on his real priorities aka killing Claudius.

      Summary of Acts II and III

• Polonius sends Reynaldo find out was Laertes has been up to

• Ophelia reveals to Polonius how Hamlet has been treating her

• Everyone now knows that Hamlet has been behaving oddly

• Claudius brings Rosencrantz and Guildenstein to basically off Hamlet

• Valtemand brings new that Fortibus II has received money and been talked to by his uncle and is no longer attacking Denmark, but seeks passage in order to attack Poland

• Polonius figures that Hamlet is crazed due to that fact that he is in love with his daughter, but says he has her spying on him

• Hamlet overhears all that Polonius says

• The players arrive

• Polonius along with everyone else uses Ophelia to spy on Hamlet. Hamlet knows this and calls Opehlia a slut and tells her to go to a whore house

• Hamlet brillantly decides to plut on a play using the player thus setting up the "Mouse Trap" scene

• The "Mouse Trap" scene is set up to see the kings reaction so that Hamlet can know for certain if he had killed his father

• Claudius indeed has the reaction Hamlet expected

• Claudius commisions for Hamlet to be sent away to England 

• Hamlet sees Claudius but chooses not to kill him because Hamlet believes he him to be praying and therefore would ascend straight to heaven

• Polonius tells Gertrude to call Hamlet to her chambers to set him straight, Polonius sayd he will hide in the curtain so all will be fine

• Hamlet goes, flips the table on Gertrude calling his mother out for what she had done to his father

• While in the chamber he hears something in the curtain and thinking it to be the king stabs through the curtain killing Polonius

• The ghost then comes in to tell Hamlet to remain on task of avenging his death and to leave his mother alone

• Hamlet believes himself to have persuaded Gertrude to his side and tells her not sleep with or talk to Claudius

      Some Other Topics Discussed in Class

 Issues with Time: Hamlet is still mourning for his father

                         The order for who sits in the throne is out of wack for Hamlet was supposed to get it not Claudius

                         Gertrude marries Claudius rather quickly after the death of her husband

* Hamlet mourns for too long; while Gertrude marries quickly wasting little time for mourning

*In general time in the play and the chronological order of events is odd.

 The Ghost: The ghost is generally silent and creepy, in til he sees Hamlet and becomes far more outspoken

                The ghost is first appears dressed in armor due to the fear of the Danes of the possible invasion and war; then in Gertrude's chamber it appears in a    nightgown, reminding Hamlet of the relationship of his parents.

 *There are three main families in Hamlet. These families have both parallels and differences between them.

The first family unit is made up of Hamlet I who is married to Gertrude who give birth to Hamlet II. Upon the death of Hamlet I, Gertrude marries his brother Claudius.

The second family unit is Fortinbras I, Fartinbras's brother, and Fortinbras's son, Fortinbras II.

The thrid family unit is Polonius, Laertes, and Ophelia. Polonius is the father of Laertes and Polonius.

 The obvious parallel is between the Hamlet family and the Fortinbras family is that each father dies and their brother becomes the king over their sons. Laertes later joins this parallel when his father is killed.

Another parallel is the both the Fortinbus family along with Polonius' family are each missing a female, mother figure.

      Hamlet Act IV Reading Questions and Answers

1. At the end of act 3, Hamlet reminds his mother that he has been sent on a foreign mission by the King (this resolution comes at 3.1.161 ff.). Where is he going? For what stated reason has Claudius sent him there? What is the real reason, as revealed at the end of 4.3? 

Hamlet is going to England under the false pretense that he is collecting a debt. In actuality he sent there with own death warrant; he is going there to be killed.

1. What has Hamlet done with the body of Polonius? What kind of a funeral did Polonius receive, according to the King (4.5.79)? 

Hamlet dragged the body of Polonius and hid it under the stairs going up to lobby. He did not receive one really. It was very “hush hush” and not a proper burial whatsoever.

1. On his way out of Denmark, Hamlet encounters a captain from the army of Fortinbras (4.4). Where are they headed? What are they fighting for? 

They are headed to Poland by cutting through Denmark. They are going to fight for a small amount of land that does not really mean anything.

1. How is Ophelia described in the stage direction that marks her entrance to 4.5? What does she sing about in her songs? What does she hand out to the court?

Ophelia is described as distracted upon her entrance in 4.5. She sings of unrequited love, loss of innocence, and death. She is also handing out flowers to the court, which each have different meaning and reveal the truth of all the recent happens. 

1. What news does the Messenger bring of Laertes in 4.5? Has he returned to Denmark alone? Compare his state to Hamlet's report at 4.7.41-45. 

The messenger says that Laertes is coming back with the intent of revenge with a throng of supporters. Laertes comes back like a man on fire with support while Hamlet comes back naked and alone, they come back essentially as opposites of one another.

1. Note how Laertes describes his motivation for revenge at 4.5.114-117. What is driving him? 

He describes this as a masculine act and that he is not a man and a bastard to his father if he does not avenge him. He is driven because he has lost everything, but particularly by the death of his father.

1. What turn of events does Hamlet report to Horatio in his letter in 4.6?

Hamlet reports to Horatio of how he was sent to deliver his own death sentence, how he was attacked by pirates and how he has flipped the tables on everyone and was aware of everything.  

1. Claudius comes up with a very complicated plan for Laertes to execute his revenge in 4.7. What is it? Notice what Laertes wants to do (4.7.98)! 

Claudius comes up with the plan for Laertes to challenge him to a duel, but to fix it. Laetes is to dip the point of his sword in poison so no matter what is to happen he will win. Laertes wants to cut his throat while in church.

1. How do we learn of Ophelia's death? What are its odd circumstances?

Gertrude comes in and tells everyone that she had committed suicide. She was up in a willow tree singing while making rings of flowers. She feel from the tree into the brook and rather than try to get out, she decides to just let herself die.

  Summary of Act IV

 - Gertrude does everything Hamlet tells her not do.

- Hamlet creates a wild goose chase for Polonious's body and finally tell them where it is hidden ( under the stairwell going to the lobby).

-Claudius sends Hamlet to England and sends Rosencrantz and Gulidenstern to make sure that he delievers his own death warrant to the court of England.

- Hamlet encounters the captain of Fortinbras's ship that is on its way to attack Poloand.

-Ophelia goes off the deep end.

- Laretes returns and gets super ticked off that his father has been killed and his sister is ready for the looney bin.

-Claudius manages to convince him to be on his side.

-Horatio finds out that Hamlet on his way back from England, was atatacked by pirates. But the pirates were really nice, so he managed to escape with his life.

-A letter is sent to Claudius from Hamlet "apologizing"

- Clauidus and Laretes plot to kill Hamlet.

- Ophelia drowns herself.

-Graveyard diggers and Hamlet chat it up.

-Hamlet and Laretes duke it out over Ophelia's body in her grave ( cause that's not weird at all).

 Some Other Info About Act IV

 What do women represent in Hamlet?

1. Legitimacy and power - Gertrude - she is referred to as the "imperial jointress"

         Hamlet tries to possess a sexual control over Gertrude

         He invades her chamber and claims into bed with her; berating her.

 Icon: Hecuba (Queen of Troy) - mother of the Trojan Army by giving birth to 50+ sons

 2. Virginity and Purity - Ophelia - "Rose of May"

        She is a victim of the world of men -the men in her live are all tring to control which eventually leads to her downfall

        Her father and brother both fear that she a reproductive danger (essentially a whore)

* Shakespeare clearly shows this in the nunery seen*

        Icon: Jephitah's daughter- Shakespeare compares Ophelia to Jephitah's daughter because she is likely to die a virgin

 Time is out a remains off:

        No proper burial for Polonius

        Issue of inheritence

 * The tragedy of the play lies in the overturning of certain social customs*

 The world around Hamlet goes mad:

       No one finds it strange how quickly Gertrude marries Claudius after the death of Hamlet I

Hamlet, Act V

Questions

1.  At the opening of act five, one of the two Clowns (rustics, or men of lower class, not clowns as we understand the word) is puzzled that Ophelia will receive a proper burial. Why? How does the Second Clown explain this treatment (5.1.22-23)? (Also, note the Priest's reluctance in the proceedings at 5.1.208 ff.)

• • Ophelia seems to have committed suicide.  Since suicide is a sin, she shouldn't have a Christian burial.  The Second Clown suggests that Ophelia gets special treatment because she is a gentlewoman. 

2.  Whose skull does Hamlet recognize in the graveyard?  

• • The skull belongs to Yorick, the court jester of Hamlet I.

3.  How long has the "grave-maker" been working at his craft? What events coincided with his first day on the job? 

• • The grave-maker has been working at his craft for 30 years.  He began working on the day Hamlet was born.

4.  Hamlet imagines that the dirt that the Clown is digging could actually be who? What happens to these great figures in Hamlet's imagining? 

• • Hamlet imagines the dirt is Alexander the Great and Julius Caear, who have "returneth into dust".  Hamlet imagines that they will be turned into clay used to repair holes in walls and to stopper bottles—essentially becoming materials.

5.  There are two surprising stage directions in 5.1: Laertes, then Hamlet, "leaps into the grave." What are they fighting over?! 

• • Hamlet and Laertes leap into the grave of Ophelia and argue about who loved her more, even though neither of them were actually there for Ophelia when she was alive.  It's a masculine battle with Ophelia as a symbol of convictions.  Neither is willing to give up, so they both lose.  It's also worth noting that Ophelia is nothing but a corpse now, so their convictions don't mean much anymore.

6.  Hamlet did inherit something from his father that proves quite useful in his stratagem against Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. What is it? 

• • Hamlet inherited his father's signet ring, which he uses to seal a letter condemning Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to death.

7.  What causes Hamlet's death (and is also the cause of death for the entire Danish court (including Hamlet I))? 

• • Poison—literally and figuratively.  Hamlet I was killed by poison poured into his ears, Hamlet II, Laertes and Claudius are killed by a poisoned sword, and Gertrude is killed by poisoned wine.  Figuratively, the poison of corruption in society could be said to have killed them.

8.  What is Laertes's dying wish? Is it fulfilled? 

• • Laertes's dying wish is for there to be peace and forgiveness between himself and Hamlet.  He does receive his wish.

9.  Just before Hamlet dies, he offers his "dying voice" to Fortinbras. What does he mean by this? What is going to happen to Denmark after the play? 

• • When Hamlet "gives his voice" to Fortinbras, it means that he is electing him as the next King of Denmark (since Denmark is an electoral monarchy and a king must be elected).

10.  What orders does Fortinbras give at the end of the play? What is the significance, do you think, of this action?

• • Fortinbras orders that Hamlet receive a soldier's funeral rites.  This is a proper burial for royalty, and it's probably meant to keep the peace.

 Reading Summary

• • the gravediggers are digging a grave for Ophelia and discuss the circumstances of her death and burial

  • Hamlet and Horatio watch the gravediggers and wonder about the lives the people buried in the graveyard must have lived

  • Hamlet recognizes the skull of Yorick and thinks that everyone, from court jesters to legendary emperors, will eventually turn to dust

  • Ophelia's funeral procession—Laertes, Claudius and Gertrude included—shows up, and Hamlet and Horatio hide

  • Hamlet recognizes the person being buried is Ophelia

  • Laertes and Hamlet jump in the grave together and fight for Ophelia's corpse, arguing over who loved her more

  • Hamlet storms off, leaving Claudius and Gertrude to think he has gone mad

 Class Discussion

 Poison is used in the play as a metaphor for tragedy within the Court of Denmark

          -Small delay of death - the anticipation of death has a tragic resonance

 Hamlet in Purgatory by Stephen Greenblatt discusses the theory that Hamlet is Shakespeare's way at coping w/ England's shift from a Catholic country to a Protestant one. The play points out this change and the differences in the two belief systems.

  Graveyard Fight Scene            

          -Laertes and Hamlet fight over who had the most love for Ophelia

          -Ophelia is still a pawn to them after death

 Who were the victims in the play?

-Ophelia

-Polonius

 Ophelia as a symbol of truth and "feminine" virtues

-Ophelia gives flowers to people which "tell the truth"

-willow=disappointed love

-rose of May=innocence, cultivated by society

-wildflowers=unrestrained or unplanned growth, more specifically: crow-flowers=fertility, nettles=pain, daisies=innocence, long purples=fertility (but are also known as "Dead Man's Fingers")

-The Rose of May and the Wildflowers have opposite meanings. The "Rose" has dynastic significance (ex. "war of roses") and the "Wild flower" is unrestrained and unplanned

-all of these flowers (and the things they represent) are lost in the river, so retrieval of innocence and fertility is impossible. No regeneration

-Gertrude, the only other female character in the play, gives the report of Ophelia's suicide

-Gertrude's speech "There is a Willow" beginning line 137 is a sentiment of unrequited love and death

 Elements of revenge plays

-masculine drive for revenge

-include fantasies of justice which cannot actually be achieved in real life (murder and torture, even if it's for the sake of "justice", doesn't go unpunished)

-conclusive; there is an absolute, complete ending in which justice is served and good triumphs over evil

-pathos - an initial wrong done to the protagonist makes us sympathize with them and justifies anything the protagonist does later

    -Ghost is a figure of pathos

-Shakespeare mimics the elements of a revenge play but questions it at the same time

-those who execute their revenge (Hamlet, Laertes) are left with nothing and die, while Fortinbras, who doesn't take his revenge gets everything and is the ultimate "winner"

-revenge leads to the fall of civilization

-path of vengeance takes Hamlet into the grave

-"Play w/i play" reflects the destructive elements of revenge, microcosm for Hamlet itself

                    -Pyrrhus seeks vengeance which leads to the Fall of Troy and civilization

 Hope at the end of the play

-Fortinbras takes over, leaving the possibility that he will be a good ruler who will restore order to Denmark

     -Gives Hamlet a proper burial

- Hamlet endorses Fortinbras as the new king

-Horatio lives to tell Hamlet's story, which can function as a cautionary tale about revenge and prevent others from making the same mistakes

-exchange of forgiveness between Hamlet and Laertes brings peace between them

     -Trade off of power

-The play is a story for the cycles of civilizations