Editing Punctuation
Editing Punctuation
Terminal punctuation can be defined as the punctuation marks that are used to finish sentences. The period, the exclamation mark, and the question mark all assume this vital role. To be sure, terminal punctuation is a cornerstone of sound English grammar.
We all know that periods end sentences. It's all too easy to think, "How complicated can that be?" Even though periods perform a straightforward function, they can still pose a challenge during the editing process. Why don't we go over some of the most common misuses of the period, so that when we encounter them, we will be able to identify them and ensure their quick and painless correction?
Sometimes we simply forget to add periods at the end of sentences. Granted, most of the time, this is an oversight, but still, as writers and editors, contrary to popular mythology, we are human; we get tired, we rush, and at times we just . . . forget.
Let's start with a classic example. Suppose a writer makes it quite obvious that a period is missing.
Last year, I took my family to Jamaica This year, we haven't decided where we're going, but it's going to be some place tropical.
It's quite obvious that there should be a period after Jamaica. Not only is the sentence complete, but the following one starts with a capital letter, indicating that a new sentence has begun.
Occasionally, there might be a capital letter because the subsequent word is a proper noun.
Last year, the resort at which we stayed was phenomenal Bob Marley's songs echoed from the beach right up to our balcony.
Here, the fact that there is a period missing between phenomenal and Bob can be a bit harder to spot. In other instances, there are no capitalized words to serve as proverbial signposts for us—just long, odd-looking trails of words. In effect, missing periods create run-on, often incoherent sentences. If you're editing a document and you find that a sentence just doesn't make sense, in addition to the fact that you have to catch your breath after reading it, there's a good chance that a period is missing.
Incorrect: The airplane has been sitting on the tarmac for what seems like hours when will the flight attendant bring some peanuts?
Correct: The airplane has been sitting on the tarmac for what seems like hours. When will the flight attendant bring some peanuts?
Incorrect: She had forgotten her cell phone and watch in the car would you believe she ended up missing the plane because, for some ghastly reason, no one had the courtesy to tell her the time?
Correct: She had forgotten her cell phone and watch in the car. Would you believe she ended up missing the plane because, for some ghastly reason, no one had the courtesy to tell her the time?
Remember, just because we assume that it is next to impossible to forget something as essential as periods, this doesn't mean that it cannot occur—it happens to the best of us for more than one reason.
Sometimes, periods are used incorrectly. Writers may mistakenly employ them when questions are being asked.
Incorrect: She begged, "Won't you let me out on the veranda to see the sublime sunset."
Correct: She begged, "Won't you let me out on the veranda to see the sublime sunset?"
Incorrect: Did the authors use sufficient evidence to support their claims.
Correct: Did the authors use sufficient evidence to support their claims?
Periods may also be erroneously used to express extreme emotions that warrant exclamation marks.
Incorrect: If you don't tell me the truth right now, I swear I'll jump.
Correct: If you don't tell me the truth right now, I swear I'll jump!
Incorrect: Get out of my office this very instant. You're fired.
Correct: Get out of my office this very instant! You're fired!
You also want to be on the lookout for periods that have taken the place of commas.
Incorrect: Vietnam, Laos. and Cambodia are in close proximity to one another.
Correct: Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia are in close proximity to one another.
Incorrect: Yet again. it seems as though another one has flown over the cuckoo's nest.
Correct: Yet again, it seems as though another one has flown over the cuckoo's nest.
As editors, we must be aware of other less obvious errors concerning period usage.
Beware of extra periods at the ends of sentences, especially where there are parentheses and citations. We tend to see this in academic papers.
Incorrect: Statistics have shown that 85 percent of university graduates go on to hold respectable positions. (Blaine, 1999).
Correct: Statistics have shown that 85 percent of university graduates go on to hold respectable positions (Blaine, 1999).
This issue isn't restricted to academia. Writers may include a period inside brackets to end a parenthetical thought.
Incorrect: The sunset offered her a temporary sense of solace (and what a marvelous sunset it was.).
Correct: The sunset offered her a temporary sense of solace (and what a marvelous sunset it was).
Another obstacle writers run into is the issue of spacing after periods. Leaving two spaces after a period is not wrong per se (although a single space is more common), but it is now considered an outdated practice and frowned upon by most style guides. You may find spacing rules applied inconsistently throughout a document. For example:
Incorrect: Although very small in terms of land mass, Japan has an extremely high population density. Until recently, Japan was a very isolated nation.
Correct: Although very small in terms of land mass, Japan has an extremely high population density. Until recently, Japan was a very isolated nation.
In this situation, you would want to advise the author to consult a style guide to verify spacing requirements and to make sure that he or she is consistent throughout the document. In the event that a particular style guide does not include such information, then the golden rule is to edit for consistency.
When it comes to editing for exclamation marks, the premise is straightforward: they are to be used when a writer wants to express excitement, a sense of urgency, or the like, using his or her own voice or when communicating direct speech. In non-academic genres like fiction, the usage and frequency of exclamation marks will depend on the context in which an author is writing, and his or her overall literary style. In academic pieces, editors know what to do with exclamation marks: we delete them.
If you happen to be editing a piece that warrants the use of exclamation marks—a script or a personal letter—you need to make sure that the author has employed them properly. In order to do this effectively, bear in mind three simple rules.
Make sure sentences requiring exclamation marks are punctuated appropriately. When direct speech is expressed, double-check to make sure that exclamation marks are placed on the inside of the end quotation mark.
Incorrect: She snapped, "If you don't put that down, you'll be sorry"!
Correct: She snapped, "If you don't put that down, you'll be sorry!"
Incorrect: My boss said he will throw our group a massive party for being the top team in sales nationwide.
Correct: My boss said he will throw our group a massive party for being the top team in sales nationwide!
If sentences do not require exclamation marks, remove them.
Incorrect: She floated noiselessly across the room!
Correct: She floated noiselessly across the room.
Incorrect: Mrs. Hawkins, I revised the report according to your specifications!
Correct: Mrs. Hawkins, I revised the report according to your specifications.
If you find that exclamation marks are being overused throughout the document, politely suggest that the writer make changes to the tone of his or her writing in certain places, as this will add variety and an element of surprise to the content.
Here's how you might compose a critique for a fiction piece:
I understand that you want to express a lot of emphasis; that's great. Emphasis is a fundamental and natural feature of writing and speaking effectively in English. With that said, I feel that you can bring out this piece's absolute best by decreasing the number of exclamation marks. You should still use them, just less frequently. Due to the content, your audience will understand the intensity of the situation. If you use exclamation marks sparingly, they will grab your readers' attention and draw them into your story, making it even more effective and engaging.
In a non-academic, professional setting, overuse or inappropriate use of exclamation marks makes correspondence seem obnoxious, overeager, or even threatening. Make sure that the writer has only placed them where they absolutely need to be. They are best used sparingly. When writing cover letters and résumés, it is best to avoid exclamation marks altogether.
Let's assume you are editing a cover letter. You read the following:
Once again, Mr. Tanaka, I thank you for taking the time to meet with me! I truly feel I will be an asset to Tanaka Inc.! Please do not hesitate to contact me at your earliest convenience to discuss this opportunity further!
In this case, you might tell the eager job prospect:
It's great that you feel confident about the interview and opportunity! This is well written, but please remember, you don't want to sound too excited (and desperate) by overusing exclamation marks. Since you are applying for a job, you want to come across as humble and respectful, while at the same time, exuding confidence in yourself and in your experience. A well-polished résumé and a sleek cover letter filled with action words will do this for you. You don't need to rely on punctuation; let your cover letter and résumé speak for themselves, and you'll surely impress that manager!
A good editor always highlights the positive things an author has done, and lets them know that he or she knows where an author is coming from, before politely suggesting constructive changes. This methodology will carry you a long way: you will gain experience in communicating with people in a tactful and diplomatic manner, and they will be more willing to trust you, apply your advice, and become better writers and authors.
We are well aware that question marks end sentences that are framed as questions. These can be in the form of questions directed to an audience, or they can be expressed as direct speech. Whatever the context may be, let us go over common errors that writers make with regard to the question mark.
When it comes to question marks, we tend to see two errors: 1) improperly punctuating indirect (or reported) speech, and 2) asking rhetorical questions (also called metadiscourse).
The first error is more common. It is not hard to see how question marks can be confusing to writers in cases where the dialogue they're reporting was originally expressed as a question. Take the following sentence as an example:
She wondered, "Will I ever move out on my own?"
We know that a transition from direct to reported speech requires changing the initial question into a statement. This requires us to replace the question mark with a period, a step that might be overlooked.
Incorrect: She wondered if she'd ever move out on her own?
Correct: She wondered if she'd ever move out on her own.
A writer's confusion need not stem from a quoted question. The simple presence of an interrogative phrase (she/he/we/they asked/inquired/wondered/questioned) may be sufficient.
Incorrect: He called the university and asked if his acceptance package had been received?
Correct: He called the university and asked if his acceptance package had been received.
Incorrect: The researchers questioned the applicants comprehensively before arriving at any conclusions?
Correct: The researchers questioned the applicants comprehensively before arriving at any conclusions.
Metadiscourse is a technique used by authors to either write about what is transpiring, what is going to transpire in their text, or to address readers directly. Depending on the context, this literary tool can present a unique challenge to editors because, even though it is grammatically correct, it should be used sparingly and applied carefully in material written for an academic audience.
Addressing readers by the use of personal pronouns (i.e., you) and asking them rhetorical questions in the body of a work should be avoided. Metadiscourse of this kind diminishes the formality of an academic work. It gives readers the impression that the author's evidence is not strong enough to stand on its own; it requires her or his personal input to convince readers of its believability. Let us suppose you are editing a thesis. The topic is the health risks associated with fast food. After stating some statistics pertaining to a steadily rising obesity rate, the author writes:
Based on the most recent studies, should it come as a surprise that many fast food chains are responding by trying to make their menus healthier? Still, for some reason, obesity rates do not show signs of a decline. Why do you suppose that would be?
Here, the question mark is certainly being used correctly. As a keen editor, do not let properly placed question marks escape either your editing program or your red pen. When reading over academic material, you should zero in on question marks. If they are being used in this manner, you may suggest the following:
I understand that you want to engage your audience by asking critical questions. All great authors, researchers, and writers do this. I suggest avoiding asking your audience direct questions, however, as this may decrease the strength of your argument. You need to assure your readers that the evidence you are presenting makes a case in and of itself.
Serial commas, used in US English, are those commas that precede the words and or or, followed by an item that concludes a list of three or more items. The previous sentence also contains parenthetical commas. Parenthetical commas are used to set apart words or phrases in sentences that introduce nonessential information in such a way that one's train of thought gets briefly interrupted and drawn away from the sentence's core.
Editing for serial commas is quite simple. Remember, they are used in US English (this is worth repeating). When you notice a list that contains three or more items, check to make sure and/or comes before the final element, otherwise the items that are supposed to be distinguished may appear to be grouped together.
Incorrect: The thesis contained an introduction, a literature review, a methodology and a conclusion.
Correct: The thesis contained an introduction, a literature review, a methodology, and a conclusion.
Incorrect: This historic site features a museum, a restaurant and a gift shop.
Correct: This historic site features a museum, a restaurant, and a gift shop.
Incorrect: She needs articles on either the Ming Dynasty, the Mongols or the Boxer Rebellion.
Correct: She needs articles on either the Ming Dynasty, the Mongols, or the Boxer Rebellion.
Check to make sure that the comma is correctly placed (i.e., that it appears before the word and/or).
Incorrect: Sami, Sumayya and, Sheldon are in his study group.
Correct: Sami, Sumayya, and Sheldon are in his study group.
In English, when we incorporate a phrase into a sentence that adds nonessential albeit relevant information, we use commas. Although this is review for us by now, it is necessary to mention because a writer may not know how to use parenthetical commas properly; the clarity and flow of his or her writing will suffer as a result. A good rule of thumb to remember is that two commas should be used, unless the phrase begins or ends a sentence, in which case we would use one. Let's look at some examples. We will start with introductory phrases.
Incorrect: To begin we must establish the parameters of the experiment.
Correct: To begin, we must establish the parameters of the experiment.
Incorrect: To be sure she's fully capable of completing her proposal on time.
Correct: To be sure, she's fully capable of completing her proposal on time.
Without that necessary pause after the introductory word or phrase, the sentence is awkward at best, or even incomprehensible. When a parenthetical phrase is introduced mid-sentence, it must be set apart by two commas, not just one.
Incorrect: The best way to do this, believe me is for you to make a rough draft first.
Correct: The best way to do this, believe me, is for you to make a rough draft first.
Incorrect: Her master's thesis, thanks to her dedicated advisor was a huge success.
Correct: Her master's thesis, thanks to her dedicated advisor, was a huge success.
When parenthetical commas are placed correctly, it is easy to differentiate between the sentence's core and the related, nonessential information we are given.
When parenthetical phrases appear at the end of the sentence, we use one comma.
Incorrect: All of them received praise for their group project except for John.
Correct: All of them received praise for their group project, except for John.
If we change the order of the above parenthetical phrase from the end of the sentence to the middle, we will need to insert another comma.
All of them, except for John, received praise for their group project.
Now let's put the parenthetical phrase at the beginning. Again, only one comma is needed:
Except for John, all of them received praise for their group project.
There you have it! When you know the mechanics and purpose behind parenthetical commas, ensuring their correct usage as an editor becomes much easier.
Used to introduce items in a list or to complete a thought, colons can prove troublesome for writers. We know that semicolons separate independent clauses; they may also be used to separate items in a (relatively long) list. We find that writers tend to use colons and semicolons in places where other forms of punctuation should be used instead. Let's go over some common examples of colon and semicolon misuse.
On occasion, even though writers are aware that a colon is associated with a list of items, they may place the colon in the wrong spot, using it as a comma. For example:
Incorrect: When preparing for an exam, one should have the following: fresh pens: scrap paper: and a calculator.
Correct: When preparing for an exam, one should have the following: fresh pens, scrap paper, and a calculator.
Incorrect: These are the most popular sports in the US: football: basketball: hockey and golf.
Correct: These are the most popular sports in the US: football, basketball, hockey, and golf.
There is one major error in particular that affects native and non-native English speakers alike: introducing a colon—even if it precedes a list—after the words include, includes, included, and verbs of being (e.g., are, were).
Incorrect: In last week's presentation, they meant to include: future projections and budgetary constraints.
Correct: In last week's presentation, they meant to include future projections and budgetary constraints.
Incorrect: The subsequent chapter includes: a broad outline, supporting points, and questions for future research.
Correct: The subsequent chapter includes a broad outline, supporting points, and questions for future research.
Incorrect: The companies represented included: Tanaka Inc., Stelco Manufacturing, and Vialink International.
Correct: The companies represented included Tanaka Inc., Stelco Manufacturing, and Vialink International.
Incorrect: The nominees for Employee of the Month are: Pinder Singh, Naima Khan, and Suzette Davis.
Correct: The nominees for Employee of the Month are Pinder Singh, Naima Khan, and Suzette Davis.
Incorrect: The results were: group A outperformed group B, group B outperformed group C, and group C outperformed group D.
Correct: The results were that group A outperformed group B, group B outperformed group C, and group C outperformed group D.
In ESL academic work, it's not uncommon to see colons used incorrectly in headings and subheadings, dangling all alone at the end.
Introduction:
Global Trade at the Beginning of the 21st Century:
These should be corrected to read as follows:
Introduction
Global Trade at the Beginning of the 21st Century
Depending on one's level of experience with English grammar, one may be prone to confuse semicolons with colons. Someone may attempt to use a semicolon to introduce a list, for example.
Incorrect: She purchased the following supplies for her class; notebooks, pens, pencils, and highlighters.
Correct: She purchased the following supplies for her class: notebooks, pens, pencils, and highlighters.
A semicolon might mistakenly be used to perform the role of a comma.
Incorrect: Pyramids are found all over the world: In Egypt; Peru; Mexico; and a host of other countries.
Correct: Pyramids are found in Egypt, Peru, Mexico, and a host of other countries around the world.
Incorrect: I've been to the US; Canada; Japan; and Korea.
Correct: I've been to the US, Canada, Japan, and Korea.
Other times, writers are unsure of when to include semicolons. This issue can produce awkward, run-on sentences with commas between clauses.
Incorrect: Our group outlined a set of objectives, a peer edit revealed that they needed to be refined and rearticulated.
Correct: Our group outlined a set of objectives; a peer edit revealed that they needed to be refined and rearticulated.
Incorrect: The authors did not elaborate any further, they insisted that the case was conclusive, this study shows otherwise.
Correct: The authors did not elaborate any further; they insisted that the case was conclusive; this study shows otherwise. OR
The authors did not elaborate any further. They insisted that the case was conclusive. This study shows otherwise.
In lists where items are listed as long phrases, or even sentences, commas can be replaced with semicolons. This makes for a more comprehensible read.
With commas: When moving to a new country, ensure the following: that you have access to living arrangements, that you have prospects for schooling and employment, and that you familiarize yourself as much as possible with aspects of the new culture.
With semicolons: When moving to a new country, ensure the following: that you have access to living arrangements; that you have prospects for schooling and employment; and that you familiarize yourself as much as possible with aspects of the new culture.
On a related note, in instances where semicolons are used to separate listed items, pay close attention to the punctuation before the last item: it should be a semicolon— consistent with the rest of the list—not a comma.
Incorrect: Our class has critically analyzed several works including Lord of the Flies; Moby-Dick, or The Whale; The Catcher in the Rye, and A Streetcar Named Desire.
Correct: Our class has critically analyzed several works including Lord of the Flies; Moby-Dick, or The Whale; The Catcher in the Rye; and A Streetcar Named Desire.
The effective editing of dashes (both em and en) and hyphens requires us to have an expert knowledge of when and how to use them. All three can look very similar to the untrained eye. Let us begin with some guidelines concerning the em dash.
We find that writers make two mistakes when it comes to the em dash. The first one involves using the hyphen or the en dash as an em dash. Even if the writer has displayed a correct understanding of the respective dashes or the hyphen, if the actual punctuation marks are wrong, they must be corrected; it indeed matters which forms of punctuation are used. For example, you might encounter something along the following lines:
A hyphen used as an em dash:
She ran up the stairs in a panic-she hadn't been able to run like that for years-and collapsed in the hallway.
If this occurs, remind the writer of the function of a hyphen. He or she does not want to inadvertently make compound words.
An en dash used as an em dash:
Your title is irrelevant–B.A., M.A., Ph.D.–if your research is not ethical, you won't get anywhere.
We know that an en dash is used to indicate a range.
pp. 15–34
January 1–January 14
If you happen to catch en dashes lurking in places where em dashes should go, advise the writer of the difference between the two, and why the lengths of dashes are significant.
In all fairness, because en dashes are closer in length to em dashes (relative to hyphens), editors may not always notice the difference. Here's a handy tip:
En dashes are the width of an n on your word processor. On a keyboard with a 10 keypad, you can generate an en dash by holding the CTRL key and pressing the minus key, or you can hold the ALT key and type 0150 on the number pad.
Em dashes are the width of an m. On a keyboard with a 10 keypad, you can generate an em dash by holding the CTRL and ALT keys and pressing the minus key, or you can hold the ALT key and type 0151 on the number pad.
Whether the writer is unaware of the differences between hyphens and the two dashes, or he or she has made a keystroke error, it would be advisable to share the em and en dash keyboard shortcuts in one of your comments. After all, everybody likes a shortcut!
Note: There are differences in the ways that en and em dashes are used in British English-speaking parts of the world and in American English-speaking parts of the world. This unit (and all the others in Inklyo) focus on American-style grammar and punctuation. Please consult guides specific to British English for details when needed.
As editors, we find that, like the exclamation mark, em dashes become problematic when they are used too often. Because you will receive many submissions from students at the university and college level, you must remember that em dashes should be used sparingly. Let's say you are editing an assignment and you notice that there are too many em dashes.
Globalization—a force that has defined and shaped the world's economy—has become a buzzword of sorts. Many countries—nations from every corner of the globe have been affected to varying degrees—have sought to either capitalize on globalization, or resist it in some way, shape, or form.
Too many em dashes can make the text appear segmented, which breaks the flow, making it harder to concentrate on the content.
There are certainly viable alternatives to em dashes. You can suggest to the writer that he or she use semicolons, parentheses, commas, and/or periods instead.
Globalization, a force that has defined and shaped the world's economy, has become a buzzword of sorts. Many countries have sought to either capitalize on globalization, or resist it in some way, shape, or form (nations from every corner of the globe have been affected to varying degrees).
Globalization is a force that has defined and shaped the world's economy; it has become a buzzword of sorts. Many nations from every corner of the globe have been affected to varying degrees, and they have sought to either capitalize on globalization, or resist it in some way, shape, or form.
As you can see, the writer is not bound to use periods, commas, semicolons, or parentheses exclusively. You can recommend that he or she change things up in order to add variety and break up stylistic monotony. An em dash here or there is acceptable in academic fields, but again, it must be used infrequently and appropriately.
On the other hand, if you are editing a piece of poetry or a manuscript, do not discourage use of the em dash when you see it. When used properly, it creates a nice effect in the writing. But even then, if you notice they are being used too much, let the writer know. It's never a good idea to go to extremes with anything.
As you know, quotation marks are to be used primarily for quoting direct speech or when directly citing primary and secondary sources (in an academic context). However, we see that there is some confusion surrounding both the correct usage and the formatting of quotation marks. Let's go over some of these errors.
When writers wish to emphasize words or phrases, they sometimes fall into the trap of using quotation marks:
Incorrect: Completely dumbfounded, she could not understand how he was able to "sleep" through their entire exam review!
When writers add emphasis, they should use italics:
Correct: Completely dumbfounded, she could not understand how he was able to sleep through their entire exam review!
Can you notice a difference in meaning? If you were reading that sentence, you would wonder what the writer intended by sleep. Did the writer mean sleep sarcastically, i.e., was he really sleeping, or was he so bored that he slept in a figurative sense? Using quotation marks in this way renders meanings very unclear. You can see just from that one word how the sentence's entire meaning can be altered. If the writer is instructed to use italics, it is understood that sleep is being emphasized; this fits the context of the girl being completely dumbfounded (we know that he really slept; it wasn't a metaphor).
Let's look at another example:
Incorrect: In "theory," every state is sovereign and has the right to self-government.
Correct: In theory, every state is sovereign and has the right to self-government.
We see the same problem here. If we allowed the writer to use quotation marks, we would need to ask: what is meant by theory? If we were to correct the error using italics, then we would be certain that actual theory is the intended meaning, and it is being stressed that these elements hold true theoretically. We must make writers aware of using italics versus quotation marks for emphasis, because it removes unnecessary ambiguities.
Often times, writers are unsure under what circumstances single and double quotation marks should be used. A common complaint of editors revolves around consistency. If someone is unaware of the rules, we're faced with a paper that may either have the wrong style applied consistently throughout the document, or the document may have single and double quotation marks used interchangeably. For example:
Incorrect: The authors contend, 'We cannot be certain of the formula's accuracy.'
Correct: The authors contend, "We cannot be certain of the formula's accuracy."
In the above example, we are operating under the assumption that standard US English is the criterion, in which case single quotation marks are incorrect.
US English does of course use single quotations marks; they are used to directly quote an author who is quoting another author or source. In this case, please make sure that writers display a correct understanding of the single quotation marks within double quotation marks:
Incorrect: According to Stanley, "Meloche has claimed that "scholars have failed to examine the consequences.""
Correct: According to Stanley, "Meloche has claimed that 'scholars have failed to examine the consequences.'"
Incorrect: Torrens views his predecessor's work as follows: "The landmark work has been heralded as "the book of the decade"; it should be extended to the century."
Correct: Torrens views his predecessor's work as follows: "The landmark work has been heralded as 'the book of the decade'; it should be extended to the century."
When we are dealing with punctuation and quotation marks, things get a bit more complex. This leaves greater room for error on the part of writers. We know that periods and commas go on the inside of closing quotation marks. This is also the case with question and exclamation marks (when they are part of an original quotation):
Incorrect: Jennings asks his readers, "Is it possible to love after having lost"?
Correct: Jennings asks his readers, "Is it possible to love after having lost?"
Incorrect: "Get over here"! she blurted.
Correct: "Get over here!" she blurted.
The dynamic changes when the question or exclamation mark is not a part of the quote itself. In these cases, the punctuation, even though it is US English, goes outside of the closing quotation mark:
Incorrect: I can't stand the saying "the grass is greener on the other side!"
Correct: I can't stand the saying "the grass is greener on the other side"!
Incorrect: Did the instructor say, "Next week's assignment has been pushed back?"
Correct: Did the instructor say, "Next week's assignment has been pushed back"?
Colons and semicolons are to be placed outside of quotation marks:
Incorrect: The themes of the article are three ":trust, loyalty, and respect;" qualities we should all admire.
Correct: The themes of the article are three: "trust, loyalty, and respect"; these are qualities we should all admire.
These are subtle albeit very important rules. We have to make sure we reinforce them so we can point them out to writers.
We should also mention that there is some confusion (among writers and editors alike) regarding when to italicize versus when to use quotation marks as far as citing sources is concerned.
For quick reference, you can let writers know the following (if and when necessary):
Use italics for books, movies, albums, and television series or anything that stands alone as an independent work that is not part of a larger body of work.
Use quotation marks for journal articles, dissertations, chapters of books, short stories, radio and TV episodes, and musical pieces or anything that is part of a larger collection or body of work.
While these general rules are relatively universal, it is best to consult the particular style guide required by your client or publishing house in order to determine which terms should be italicized and which should be in quotation marks.
We recall that ellipses are used for three purposes:
To indicate the omission of quoted material
To indicate a pause
To express an unfinished thought
Yes, it is true that ellipses are just three dots (and sometimes four); yet, we cannot oversimplify them, as doing so may cause us to miss critical errors that are easy to make. Let's go over some of the finer points . . . of these . . . points.
We're all familiar with the phrase "dot, dot, dot." While it is true that an ellipsis is usually a sequence of three dots, it's not as simple as placing three periods between text. The proper usage of ellipses requires a few technical rules.
First, if we are omitting something from within a single sentence, we use three dots and ensure that a single space separates the text from the ellipses on either side. Some style guides (e.g., Chicago) require a space between each ellipsis dot, while others (e.g., Associated Press) do not. This training follows Chicago's method and places a space between each ellipsis dot. Consult specific style guides or instructors for final clarification. Take the following sentence, for example:
He is a fan of many different sports: football, basketball, baseball, soccer, volleyball, tennis, racquetball, and even tiddlywinks.
We want to omit a bit of that list:
Incorrect: He is a fan of many different sports: football, basketball, baseball,...and even tiddlywinks.
Incorrect: He is a fan of many different sports: football, basketball, baseball,. . .and even tiddlywinks.
Correct: He is a fan of many different sports: football, basketball, baseball, . . . and even tiddlywinks.
In the first example, notice how even though there are three dots without the spaces between the ellipses and text, this sentence would not be correct. In the second example, there are spaces between the dots themselves, but not between the ellipsis and text; this is also incorrect. Spacing is key!
Ellipses can also be made up of a series of four dots. This occurs when a writer is omitting one or more sentences from a paragraph. Take a look at the following:
Some contend that the most effective way to learn is through one-on-one instruction. Others argue that small groups are ideal. Yet another group claims that large classrooms are best because they take the pressure off of the individual. Personally, from first-hand experience, I believe that a mixed approach is the most dynamic and thus effective.
Now, let's say we wanted to cut everything after the first sentence of the first paragraph. We would use four dots here, the first of which is actually a period signifying the end of a complete sentence.
Some contend that the most effective way to learn is through one-on-one instruction. . . . Personally, from first-hand experience, I believe that a mixed approach is the most dynamic and thus effective.
And finally, let's suppose that we are dealing with an omission from the end of a paragraph along with an omission of text from the beginning of a new paragraph:
Some contend that the most effective way to learn is through one-on-one instruction . . . .
. . . [A] mixed approach is the most dynamic and thus effective.
Notice that four dots follow the end of the first sentence, and three begin the next paragraph on the next line. The square brackets around the letter A are used by the writer to inform readers that she or he has added to the content of the original material. In this case, the letter a has been capitalized to begin a new sentence in a grammatically correct manner.
These scenarios—which you will encounter more often in the world of non-academic writing— are simple: make sure there are three dots and that spacing is correct between the dots and between the text and the ellipsis.
Incorrect: Kurosawa stammered: "You...you...killed my master!"
Correct: Kurosawa stammered: "You . . . you . . . killed my master!"
Incorrect: The old baker's wife scurried back to the kitchen: "Don't tell me we're all out..."
Correct: The old baker's wife scurried back to the kitchen: "Don't tell me we're all out . . ."
Incorrect: Can you tell me. . .what in blazes you're still doing here?
Correct: Can you tell me . . . what in blazes you're still doing here?
When it comes to the differences between American and British punctuation, we must concentrate our efforts on three areas: serial commas, quotation marks, and dashes.
The first major difference we have to watch for is the fact that British English has traditionally used single quotation marks (also called inverted commas), where American English has used (and still uses) double quotation marks as the standard. However, the usage of double quotation marks has become more common in British English. If you are editing or proofreading a document that has specified British English as the criterion and you happen to see double quotation marks, do not ask the writer to change the style of punctuation unless you notice both single and double quotation marks throughout. Refer to the style guide specified, or ask the writer to choose one and be consistent (unless a style guide specifies one in particular).
We know that American English does utilize single quotation marks in a special case: when there are quotations within quotations. For example:
"Smith's review is 'overly simplistic, unscientific, and presumptuous.'"
If you are not very familiar with the workings of British punctuation, you may want to know how to handle quotes within quotes if inverted commas are already being used. In this case, all you would do is make sure that the secondary quote is surrounded by double quotation marks, like so:
'The court case', according to Rawlings, 'was dismissed on auspicious grounds; as Henry stated, "The jury was hung."'
Now, you'll notice here in this example that the comma after case is outside of the quotation mark, but that the period after hung is inside. This brings up a cardinal rule that distinguishes British from American punctuation: in British English, punctuation normally goes outside of quotation marks except when said punctuation is part of an original quote. In instances like these, American and British punctuation appear quite similar. The only difference, with respect to the latter, is that punctuation introduced by the writer (e.g., commas) would go outside of the quotation marks. Look at the following:
American: "The conclusion," writes Muhammad, "is that nothing should be taken on face value."
British: 'The conclusion', writes Muhammad, 'is that nothing should be taken on face value.'
In the British rendering, you can see that the comma following the conclusion is outside of the quotation mark, as it is the writer's addition; however, the period after value remains inside. This is because the writer has reached the end of the full quote by Muhammad. In the American style, the comma and period are both inside of the quotation marks.
There is one notable exception to the inside rule in American English: If the sentence containing a quote ends in parentheses—as part of a citation, for example—the punctuation is placed on the outside. American and British English share this feature.
"Without a doubt, the Internet has forever transformed the way we view the world" (Bular, 2010).
"Countries," writes Carter, "have seen a decline in state sovereignty with the rise of MNCs" (Carter, 1999).
American and British English also dictate that colons and semicolons go outside of quotation marks.
While there are some similarities, there are distinct differences between American and British punctuation insofar as quotation marks are concerned. We must have a solid understanding of this topic because it is very easy for writers to make mistakes, especially when special rules or exceptions come into play.
Since we've already covered the serial comma, just bear in mind that it is not formally used in British English. However, if the author has used the serial comma consistently, it's better to query the author and inform him or her of this stylistic difference. Let the author decide whether to use the serial comma. So, just to recap, serial commas go at the end of lists of three or more items or ideas, and precede and and or.
American: NAFTA's legislation encompasses Canada, the US, and Mexico.
British: NAFTA's legislation encompasses Canada, the US and Mexico.
American: The military had three choices: attack from the front, attack from the rear, or retreat.
British: The military had three choices: attack from the front, attack from the rear or retreat
Another thing we should mention is that traditionally speaking, British English has not used the em dash; instead, it has relied on the en dash to set apart parenthetical thoughts. Note that there is a space between the en dashes and text:
Crowley, how you managed to outsmart that rogue salesman – although it shocked us at the time – is a testament to the true sharpness of your wit!
While this is the preferred style of some notable British publishers, including Routledge, Cambridge University Press, and the Penguin Group, it is not an overarching rule. The Oxford Guide to Style, for instance, insists that the American em dash be used. So, if you are editing a piece and British English is the standard, be sure to have the writer verify the preferred method via a style guide. If one is not identified, then consistency throughout is key.
In this lesson, we've covered terminal punctuation and the proper uses of the period, exclamation mark, and question mark. We've talked about comma usage and the usage of the comma's cousins, semicolons and colons. Remember that comma usage changes depending on whether commas occur in documents adhering to British or American English.
Em dashes, en dashes, and hyphens are all frequently misused. We've given you the tools to use them correctly. Remember that em dashes are for interruptions, en dashes are for ranges and relationships, and hyphens are used to break up words and to affix prefixes.
Quotation marks are especially tricky, but once you've determined whether you are using the American or British style, they follow a very predictable pattern.
Ellipses are not used as frequently as other forms of punctuation and shouldn't pose too much of a problem. Remember to consult your specific style guide when editing ellipses in case special provisions are made for punctuation marks such as these.
As we've pointed out, several of these punctuation marks follow different rules depending on whether they are used in British- or American-style English writing. As long as the editor is aware of the style he or she is supposed to employ, no problems should arise.
Last Updated: 09/29/2022