The Five Critical Components of Style
The Five Critical Components of Style
Style means many things depending on context. In terms of editing, style refers to how something is presented and the mechanics used to produce a document or manuscript. Style from a proofreading perspective generally refers to the rules used to ensure consistency in a text. We'll cover more of that in the proofreading program.
In this course, we're looking at style from the editing perspective. There are five major concerns for an editor with respect to style:
Organization
Transitions
Emphasis
Language
Illustrations
In terms of organization, an editor should be conscious of the following while editing a document:
A sense of structure and coherence
Maintaining the voice of the writer
A well-organized or structured paper should present its argument logically and coherently. Coherence means that the ideas are presented so that the argument is easy to follow.
The overall structure of the document should be examined first. Sections and subsections should be used to establish the structure of the document. Does each section of the document perform its proper function? Does it logically and coherently develop the writer's argument? Is the method of organization appropriate for the audience? The way one would write a dissertation is much different than the way someone might write an article about the same topic for popular consumption in a weekly news magazine.
Examine the introductory chapter or section of the document. Is the aim and purpose clear? Does the introduction outline the pathway that the reader will travel in order to arrive at the conclusion? Read the concluding chapter or section. Does it respond to the aim stated in the introduction? Do the introduction and the conclusion complement each other?
The table of contents should correspond to the major divisions and subdivisions of the text. Headings and subheadings should be clear and explicit. The table of contents should give some indication if there are any major problems with the organizational logic of the document.
Moving from the macro level to the micro level, sentence length should vary, and long, rambling sentences should be avoided. There should be one main idea in each sentence, just like there should be one main idea in each paragraph. If a sentence is more than three lines long, the editor should seriously consider breaking it into two shorter sentences.
The use of paragraphing will help the reader find his or her way through the text. The use of clear topic sentences at the beginning of each paragraph simplifies the process of breaking the text into paragraphs. If paragraphs are too short, it may mean that a point needs further development; this should be communicated to the author.
Transitions from one part of a document to another are just as important as the overall organization of the document. When a reader is consuming information for the first time, the author has to help that reader get from one place to another and provide clear links from section to section. The editor's job is to ensure the author has "connected the dots" for the reader.
In nonfiction, when making an argument throughout a long document, the argument should be marked with signposts to keep it clear and accessible to the reader. Signposting can be done at all levels of text. Chapter headings and subheadings provide major divisions, and individual paragraphs (especially introductory and concluding paragraphs), sentences, and even words help the reader move from major division to major division. Signpost words and phrases, such as first, next, and finally, tell the reader where the argument is going.
An author may provide directions or present an overview. An author can forecast, recapitulate, or review. For example, the author may use phrases like The second chapter will cover . . . or When we analyze the data more closely, we will see that . . . to look forward. The author may use phrases like In chapter one, we examined . . . or We have seen that the key question that emerged . . . to look back.
The sentences within each paragraph should be arranged in an orderly way so that there is a logical flow of ideas. Paragraphs should not jump from idea to idea; they should flow from one logical thought to the next. Transition sentences (sometimes called linking sentences) should be used at the beginning and end of paragraphs to improve coherence and clarity.
Linking words should be used to make each step of an argument easy to identify. Transitional expressions include the following: however, also, too, in addition, like, similarly, in the same way, on the contrary, therefore, as a result, moreover, furthermore, and on the other hand. Care should be taken that transition words are not overused and that they are used appropriately. Two logically related phrases don't necessarily require the use of a transitional or linking expression.
Here are some examples of changes made to transitional expressions in sentences.
Incorrect: The students prefer to study in the library. Similarly, they also prefer to study in the lounge.
Correct: The students prefer to study in the library or the lounge.
Incorrect: A nail salon is a great place to have one's toenails clipped. On the contrary, it is inappropriate to clip one's toenails in public.
Correct: A nail salon is a great place to have one's toenails clipped. However, it is inappropriate to clip one's toenails in public.
Consider: The lumberjack cut the tree at its base. Consequently, the tree fell.
Preferable: The lumberjack cut the tree at its base. The tree fell.
In fiction, many authors keep it simple and stick to an easy-to-follow, chronologically ordered plot. An editor's job is much trickier when the author has chosen to bounce around in a timeline or use a large cast of characters (or perhaps even both). The editor must help the author strike that fine balance between keeping the plot and cast complex enough to intrigue, but not so complex that it frustrates and confuses.
In both nonfiction and fiction, the editor's value is that he or she is both fresh to the material and objective about it. An author may think he has transitioned well, but the editor will be able to show him where he has not and, more importantly, how to correct this.
Any of the following techniques can be used to indicate emphasis:
Italics: Italics can provide light emphasis.
Underlining: Underlining is insistent. Underlining works well to emphasize a complete phrase. Be aware that underlining isn't as popular as it once was due to other options provided by modern printing methods.
Boldface: This is clearly visible when you first look at the whole page.
Size: Larger fonts draw attention and small fonts recede. Overmixing font sizes could result in reduced readability.
Punctuation: The exclamation mark, in particular, provides strong emphasis! It should be used sparingly so as not to become redundant.
All caps (caps lock): This is the written equivalent of SHOUTING. It should be avoided as much as possible.
Color: Brighter colors and those toward the red end of the spectrum stand out more. Blues and dark colors add subtle emphasis.
Combinations: Any of the above can be combined; however . . .
Cases of OVERUSE should be subject to editorial intervention!!!!
There are a couple of things to remember when emphasizing text.
The use of italics for emphasis should not be confused with the use of italics for foreign words, musical dynamics (subito fortepiano, mezzo-forte, etc.), parts of enzymes and genes, names of legal cases, rhyme schemes, various mathematical objects, and genus and species names of plants, animals, and bacteria.
Once a word has been emphasized, any instance of the word thereafter should have the emphasis removed.
If emphasis is added to quoted material, the author must indicate this is the case with notes such as italics mine or emphasis added.
An editor should examine any material set in italics or boldface or any material that is underlined to be sure the textual accent stops and starts as intended. Editors should also ensure that any punctuation that appears before or after any emphasized material is not underscored, bolded, or italicized.
George Orwell once noted that English "becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts." An editor should work to ensure that writing is as precise as possible and eschews slovenliness at all costs.
Generally, being precise means getting rid of things like the following:
Vague time references
Since the beginning of time . . .
Earlier this century . . .
At some point . . .
Vague person references
Some say that . . .
It is widely believed that . . .
Society makes us . . .
Vague descriptions
Sarah is highly educated . . .
It will have a terrible impact . . .
. . . and so on.
Unfortunately, these aren't the only kinds of errors you'll run into that slow down the reader. Let's look at a few brief examples of vagueness in both fiction and nonfiction. We'll get into specifics in an upcoming lesson.
Academic writing in particular is rife with vague language. While some "hedge" writing is acceptable when discussing tentative or preliminary results in studies, an editor should watch for the overuse of words such as the following:
seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe, doubt, be sure, indicate, suggest
must, would, may, might, could
often, sometimes, usually
probably, possibly, perhaps, conceivably
Also watch for the overuse of phrases such as the following:
It could be the case that . . .
Or
It might be suggested that . . .
It is important to develop . . .
Or
It would be useful to . . .
In fiction, an editor's job is to make sure the text comes to life by helping the author with word choice. Consider these examples:
Max walked into the room.
vs.
Max stomped into the room.
In the latter sentence, a simple word change alerted the reader that Max is at the very least emotional, probably angry, and that something interesting is about to happen.
The editor can also help the author show, not tell. Consider this example:
An angry Max entered the room.
vs.
Nostrils flaring, Max stomped into the room.
The latter sentence shows Max's anger by describing the way in which Max enters the room and the condition of Max's nostrils instead of telling the reader that Max is angry.
You should take care when editing fiction not to overdo edits for precision. A certain amount of vagueness might be appropriate for artistic reasons or for literary reasons (e.g., not revealing too much of the plot). It is also important to allow the reader to project him or herself into the narrative, and being too precise won't allow the reader to do that. Fiction editing requires helping the author find that perfect balance between showing and telling.
There are several ways in which an editor can help a writer achieve clarity.
Use simple words: Simple words can sometimes replace more difficult words without changing the meaning of the message. Unless a more sophisticated style is appropriate for the intended audience, a writer should always strive to use simple language. A thesaurus is a good tool to use when looking for a simple word to replace a more complicated one. However, you should never use a word if you are unsure of its meaning.
Instead of: The HR manager was cognizant of the details of the incident. (difficult word)
Try: The HR manager was aware of the details of the incident. (simple word)
Use proper English: This means avoiding colloquialisms, substandard English, or incorrect usage.
Instead of: Lianna will try and write three articles before the end of the day. (incorrect)
Try: Lianna will try to write three articles before the end of the day. (correct)
Eliminate clichés and trite or common language: Trite expressions are those that have lost their freshness or originality through overuse. Modify or eliminate these expressions, as well as clichés that carry very little meaning, such as in this day and age, down to earth, unbelievable.
Instead of: We would be favored with a written reply. (trite expression)
Try: Please write us. (preferred)
Minimize the use of the passive voice: In the active voice, the subject performs the action. In the passive voice, the subject is the receiver of the action. The writer (and subsequently, the editor) should determine which voice is more appropriate. The active voice is generally recommended, as it is clearer, more direct, easier to use, and results in a stronger sentence. However, in the methodology section of a scientific paper, for example, the reader is often more interested in what was done than who did it. In such cases, the passive voice is the one to use.
Instead of: The checks were distributed by the accountant. (passive voice)
Try: The accountant distributed the checks. (active voice)
But . . .
Instead of: The doctor poured the mixture into the solution. (active voice)
Try: The mixture was poured into the solution. (passive voice)
Ensure that when a pronoun is used, the subject noun to which it refers can be clearly identified: Incorrectly referenced pronouns are a frequent cause of ambiguity.
Instead of: John told Marvin that his girlfriend was dropping by at 7:00 p.m. (John's girlfriend or Marvin's girlfriend?)
Try: John told Marvin that Marvin's girlfriend was dropping by at 7:00 p.m.
Use fewer words: Wordiness describes the use of words that add little or no information to a sentence. Any words, phrases, or sentences that can be eliminated without changing the author's meaning should be removed. Phrases such as It will be noted that . . . or It should be pointed out that . . . usually result in wordy sentences. An author should say what he or she has to say and get straight to the point. Edit ruthlessly.
Instead of: It should be pointed out that the fog affected the attitudes of all the campers. (wordy)
Try: The fog affected the attitudes of the campers. (concise)
An editor must be careful, however, not to change meaning when editing.
Eliminate redundancy: Redundancy is the needless repetition of words. Such phrases as actual facts, acute crisis, may possibly, or first and foremost are features of oral rhetoric and can sound overblown in the more precise context of academic writing.
Instead of: Greg used the exact same reference as Nat. (redundant)
Try: Greg used the same reference as Nat. (concise)
Avoid overuse of words: Overused words are often not detected by a writer, as they are part of his or her everyday vocabulary. An editor should be on the lookout for these words, which may later distract the reader from the author's intended message, reducing its effectiveness. Examples of these words include good, really, much, and very.
Example: Thank you very much for the very interesting book. (overuse of very)
Modify to: Thank you for the interesting book.
Or: Thank you very much for the interesting book.
Or: Thank you very much for the extremely interesting book.
Or: Thank you very much. The book was interesting.
Eliminate unnecessary phrases or clauses: Phrases and clauses can be useful in writing; however, too many of them can interrupt the flow of a message and confuse it. Here are a few tips for improving the wording of phrases or clauses:
Use a modifier
Instead of: The teacher of the third-grade students is absent today.
Try: The third-grade teacher is absent today.
Use a possessive
Instead of: The office of the president of the company got robbed!
Try: The company president's office got robbed!
Use an appositive
Instead of: Karen, who is our marketing co-ordinator, called the client.
Try: Karen, our marketing co-ordinator, called the client.
Use better wording
Instead of: Her baby is due in the last month of the year.
Try: Her baby is due in December.
When editing for language, ensure that important terms that might be unclear to the reader are defined and that the meaning of each sentence is clear. Make sure that each pronoun (he, she, it, they, which, who, this, etc.) has an antecedent. Ensure that the writer has used proper English and simple words to express his or her ideas. Eliminate unnecessary phrases or clauses, redundancy, and wordiness. Only use the passive voice where necessary.
In a later lesson, we'll cover the ins and outs of editing style, and we'll give you some specific examples of how to help a writer develop a document that is concise and well worded. Let's end our brief discussion of language and precision with a quote from Strunk and White. They romanticize the editor's task in the following passage:
Clarity, clarity, clarity . . . Muddiness is not merely a disturber of prose, it is also a destroyer of life, of hope: death on the highway caused by a badly worded road sign, heartbreak among lovers caused by a misplaced phrase in a well-intentioned letter, anguish of a traveler expecting to be met at a railroad.
When editing for style, an editor must also consider the illustrations that accompany a text. Illustrations include:
Photographs and images: These might be produced by a standard camera or more specialized equipment, such as a scanning electron microscope.
Drawings: These include hand- or computer-drawn pictures.
Diagrams: These are special kinds of drawings used to demonstrate the relationships between or functions of objects.
Graphs: Graphs are abstract representations of data designed to demonstrate relationships or trends.
Tables: These present data in a raw but compact and organized form.
Infographic: Infographics combine some or all the above elements to present an entire story or concept in an interesting and factual way.
When editing illustrations for style, you must review them in light of the four other considerations we've discussed: organization, transitions, emphasis, and language.
Illustrations are powerful tools for conveying meaning quickly. If done well, they can add value to a document. If done poorly, they can detract from or spoil the document.
Organization
The information presented in an illustration must be well organized. An image should be well lit, in focus, and composed well enough to make the subject clear. A diagram should not have so many connecting lines or components that a reader cannot figure out the relationships presented. A drawing should have clear details and high contrast. In general, illustrations should be appropriately sized and properly oriented.
Transition
The placement of an illustration is often just as important as how it is organized; the reader is, in effect, transitioning from text to pictures and must be able to do so cleanly. The figure should be placed as close as possible to the material it illustrates. Putting a results graph in the methodology section of a paper is likely to confuse readers.
Emphasis
An editor must consider whether an illustration is necessary and whether it emphasizes something that is relevant to the document's overall purpose. Authors sometimes insert illustrations simply because they break up the text or because they make it "look nicer" or "more professional." An editor must be a bit more objective; he or she should recommend cutting illustrations if they don't add value or suggest changing the illustrations if something else would make a better point.
Language
An editor is responsible for verifying that tables and illustrations (or figures) have corresponding captions and that these captions clearly explain the "what" and the "why" of the illustration. These should be reviewed as thoroughly as the main text.
A caption is the explanatory material that appears (usually) below an illustration. A caption does not necessarily need to be a full sentence, although it can consist of several sentences or a title followed by one or more sentences.
Example: The Viceroy Butterfly. The illustration above demonstrates the emergence of a viceroy butterfly (Limenitis archippus) from its cocoon.
All elements of a table, figure, or illustration should be appropriately labeled. A label is the descriptive term that appears within an illustration.
Both the x (horizontal) and y (vertical) axes on a graph should be labeled, as should the elements in a bar chart or a pie chart. When symbols are used in a chart or a map, the symbols must be identified either in a key within the figure or in the caption.
Example: A graph representing the lifecycle of a viceroy butterfly. The blue dots represent the egg stage, the yellow squares represent the caterpillar stage, and the green ovals represent the adult stage.
Generally, all tables, figures, and illustrations are identified with a number according to the style of the publishing house, journal, or assignment requirements. References to the illustration should be made using that number.
Example: Figure 2 illustrates the caterpillar stage in the lifecycle of a monarch butterfly.
If there is a list of figures and tables, all figure and table captions and titles should be compared with the list for accuracy. Captions must conform to the style of the text. The sources of any reproduced illustrations, figures, or tables should be properly cited.
We're going to talk in much more depth about style a little bit later, but this list of elements is a great place to start.
Organization
Transitions
Emphasis
Language
Illustrations
All of these things have to follow a particular style. Conversely, they can also be used to define a particular style.
Last Updated: 09/29/2022