Literature Review on Language Acquisition
Literature Review on Language Acquisition
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In designing a more comprehensive 14-sequenced lessons (see Teaching Material) based on the same thematic curriculum, I used the analysis of my teaching to inform my sequence of lessons and my approach to material exploration. However, I also recognized the significance of incorporating language considerations into classroom discussions on the theme and the introduction to materials. To do this, I reviewed the following literature in the field of non-native English speakers (NNES). As a NNES, English is not my first language. I was born and raised in Taiwan, where Mandarin was my primary mode of communication. Although I began learning English at a young age, it wasn't until I entered college and relocated to New York City that I began using English extensively in my daily life. Identified as bilingual, I fall under the category of sub-coordinate bilingualism.
Bilingualism
D’Acierno (1990) outlines three types of bilingualism, each presenting different approaches to two languages: compound, coordinate, and sub-coordinate. Compound bilingualism describes individuals who learn two languages simultaneously in a shared environment. These individuals develop a fused representation of both languages in their brains, where the languages are interdependent (D’Acierno, p.11). For instance, growing up in a household where each parent speaks a different language exemplifies compound bilingualism.
Coordinate bilingualism, on the other hand, pertains to individuals who acquire languages in separate contexts; they may learn one language at school or work and another at home. “The words of the two languages belong to two separate systems which are independent. Each word belongs to one specific concept and has its own meaning” (D’Acierno, p.12).
Sub-coordinate bilingualism, also known as late bilingualism, “occurs when one language predominates over the other” (D’Acierno, p.12). It refers to individuals who learn a second language through their mother tongue. With a stronger reliance on my mother tongue, Mandarin, I consider myself sub-coordinate bilingual. When speaking or comprehending English, I often find it necessary to translate vocabulary or sentences into Mandarin for full understanding. This process of translation is a common experience among sub-coordinate bilingual individuals. Understanding the nuances of bilingualism has prompted me to reflect on my identity as a non-native English speaker (NNES) and how this understanding can influence my instructional decisions in the classroom.
Self-Perception as an NNES Educator
According to Chung (2014), research by Reves and Medgyes in the 1990s found that non-native English speaker (NNES) teachers often experience insecurity and a low level of self-confidence due to their perceived limitations in the target language. As an NNES educator, I have grappled with this sense of insecurity while teaching in English, which is my target language. This 'inferiority complex,' as Reeves and Medyes describe it, can hinder professional development and is often exacerbated by concerns about student biases, the pressure to demonstrate proficiency, and the fear of making mistakes. Chung's interviews with NNES educators, although they are language teachers, reveal similar struggles, highlighting the complexities of navigating a perceived hierarchy in language acquisition, where non-native speakers are often seen as less proficient compared to native speakers.
This hierarchy, rooted in the notion of nativeness, influences how educators perceive themselves and their students. Reflecting on my teaching experience at PS 329Q, I recognize that my perception of students as potential native speakers, despite some being English Language Learners, affects my instructional decisions. Chung argues that instead of viewing our multilingual backgrounds as a limitation, NNES educators should leverage their experiences to guide students and serve as empathetic learner models. This reframing aligns with the principles of culturally responsive teaching (CRT), which emphasizes the value of integrating students' cultural backgrounds into teaching practices. Embracing my identity as a sub-coordinate bilingual educator allows me to celebrate linguistic diversity as an asset within the CRT framework, ultimately enriching my teaching approach.
The Role of Language in Culturally Responsive Teaching
In Culturally Responsive Teaching & The Brain (2015), Zaretta Hammond encourages educators to engage in inward reflection, a crucial step for responding positively and constructively to students from diverse cultural backgrounds. She emphasizes the significance of cultural information in shaping the brain's interpretation of everyday events, highlighting similarities in worldview, core beliefs, and group values across cultures. These similarities, termed "cultural archetypes," include concepts like “Collectivism” and “Individualism” (p.25.) Hammond (2015) introduces Collectivism and Individualism as fundamentally different ways in which the brain organizes itself. Collectivistic societies prioritize relationships, interdependence within a community, and cooperative learning, while individualistic societies emphasize individual achievement and independence (p. 25).
Given that many students at PS 329Q are immigrants from Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, and Mexico, understanding these cultural dynamics becomes particularly relevant. Hammond references the Individualism-Collectivism continuum index developed by cultural psychologist Geert Hofstede, which evaluates countries on a 100-point scale based on their level of individualism. Lower numbers on this scale indicate a more collectivist orientation. Below are the index numbers for the countries from which the students originate:
The countries from which the students immigrated lean towards collectivist cultures. In these cultures, individuals are more likely to “downplay self-promotion in favor of promoting harmony and interdependence in the family or workplace” (p. 26). The diverse linguistic backgrounds of my class in PS 329Q prompts me to think about how to incorporate language into my unit plan. This consideration is especially pertinent since many students are still developing proficiency in English and encountering challenges with spelling and writing. Recognizing language as an inseparable and intrinsic component of any culture, it should be valued and integrated into instruction.
Language and conversation play pivotal roles in fostering students' sense of agency and independence. According to Hammond (2015), “In collectivist cultures, the primary way we name and notice is through a variety of talk structures, each with its own situational appropriateness.” (p.149) She delineates two primary talk structures: social talk and academic talk. Unlike traditional talk structures where students passively listen and instruction remains teacher-centered, these structures empower students to expand their thinking and envision the individuals they aspire to become.
Social talk structures, fostering participatory and interactive communication, serve as a warm-up for each lesson, fostering community building and rapport among students. As Hammond (p.149) suggests, culturally proficient speakers anticipate active engagement from listeners through vocalization, motion, or movement during discussions. While there are multiple ways to approach social talk structures in the classroom, they all prioritize ensuring that students have equal time to talk and space to be heard. In parallel, academic talk structures offer opportunities for in-depth exploration of concepts and critical thinking. These instructional conversations are “focused on giving students language to talk about their own learning and thinking process” (p. 149). Hammond notes that the National School Reform Faculty (NSRF) provides teachers in professional learning communities with protocols to support their instructional conversations. These protocols aid in helping students build understanding of concepts from basic to higher levels and also aid in developing listening skills. (p.150)
In my revised 14-lesson unit plan, I aim to incorporate both social and academic talk structures to foster a sense of belonging and facilitate high-order thinking. By balancing both social and academic talk structures, we can harness the power of the classroom community to support dependent learners in their journey towards greater autonomy and academic success (Hammond, p.150). Moreover, recognizing the critical role of language in culturally responsive pedagogy, I will ensure that linguistic diversity is celebrated and integrated into instruction, providing all students with equitable opportunities to engage meaningfully and express themselves authentically.
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