Watch out - this is gun be quick n dirty
A Record. Points to website usually. Goes from google.com - to the IP address
CNAME Goes from your domain name to another domain name - www.google.com -> google.com
MX record - Where does email go to?
AAAA record, LIke an A record but for IPv6
TXT record - You can put text here. Usually SPF records, or random numbers etc to prove you are a domain owner
Authoritative Nameserver - The top dog for this specific domain. Where you register a domain you tell it which nameservers to use.
Zone file - This is where the Nameserver stores the records.
Cpanel - Popular server based software for managing webservers
CAA Record - Which Certificate authorities can issue certificates for this domain
DNS editor - Where you change the Zone file / Those records above.
Why should you know / care? Cause it's confusing to begin with. There's LOADS of stuff out there on how DNS works, Going from domain name to IP address - But not a whole lot I could find about this real simple stuff.