Glossary

Activation continuum

In emotions research, the activation continuum is the spectrum of motivational outcomes associated with particular emotions (i.e. activated versus not activated)

Active use

The creation and exchange of information on social media including sharing pictures, posting status updates, and commenting on posts. Refer to engagement. (Verduyn et al. 2017)

Ad scepticism

The tendency to disbelieve the informational claims of advertising (Obermiller and Spangenberg 1998)

Advocacy

Unsolicited speaking for the brand (e.g. I am eating well and feeling better). In public communications, this can also be a role played in advocating for change.

Affect as information paradigm

In cognitive psychology this view suggests that emotions provide information that influences an individual’s decision making

Affective

Relating to, arising from, or influencing feelings or emotions.

Affordance

The properties of an environment, technological or otherwise, that shape the possibility of action rather than the actual action within this environment (e.g. the functions).

Alpha users

The person who is at the centre of social media usage and the social network, often the alpha user will also be a maven (see definition for maven).

Anomie

The breakdown of social bonds between an individual and the community; used to describe the breakdown between dissident groups and society or government.

Anticipated guilt

This is an individual’s assessment of potential future outcomes of a possibly trangressive action and determining that an action should be avoided because it will lead to feeling guilty

Appeals

Advertising appeals: attention getting devices used in advertising and communication - also calls to action. e.g. emotional appeals, rational appeals, information appeals, etc. (Assael Brennan advertising text book )

Appearance comparisons

The predisposition for a person to compare their appearance to others as a means of evaluating their opinion of themselves (Manago et al. 2015; Hendrickse et al. 2017)

Appearance satisfaction

Refer to body dissatisfaction

Appearance self-worth

Refer to body dissatisfaction

Arousal

(In emotions research) This is classified as the activation continuum from deactivation (not aroused) to activation (aroused).

Artefact

Human made object, used to describe any 'thing' that can be used to promote or advertise the brand

Aspirational Healthy Eater

One of the six Living & Eating for Health Segments (LEHS), defined as - They aspire to be healthy but healthy eating is hard and they struggle sometimes to stick to it. (Brennan et al. 2020)

Associations (with the brand attributes)

The way in which people think of a particular brand when they think of a particular activity because they are closely connected with each other

Asynchronous

Social media which does not require people to be online at exactly the same time. That is, it does not get used at the same time by users.

Attention devices

Conspicuously drawing attention to something. For example, shocking imagery, loud volume, bright colours (red/yellow), use of signs and symbols designed to draw attention.

Attitude

Attitudes are a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating an object positively or negatively.

Awareness

The degree to which a message has made an impression on the viewer or reader.

Avatar

A figure or symbol (icon) representing a particular person or character in a video game or online presence.

Balanced All Rounder

One of the six Living & Eating for Health Segments (LEHS), defined as - They aim to live a balanced life and believe moderation and being able to enjoy food without guilt is important. (Brennan et al. 2020)

Bandwagon heuristic/effect

Implies collective endorsement and popularity of the underlying content. The idea that ‘if others think that something is good, then I should too’ (Sundar and Shyam 2008). When people do something merely because others are doing it, sometimes in contradiction of stated beliefs and intentions

Behavioural Ecological Model (BEM)

The ecology of human behaviours (includes societal, community, families and friends, and individual influences). Often portrayed as consisting of five interrelated layers: macro - (societal), exo (governance), meso (communities) and micro (families, peers) and individuals.

Behavioural ecosystem

A subset of ecosystem (see definition), this is the system in which behaviours occur, and where influences on behaviour are embedded; behaviours are an outcome of the influences within the ecosystem

Blissfully Unconcerned

One of the six Living & Eating for Health Segments (LEHS), defined as - They are not concerned with eating healthy and it is not something they think about or find relevant to them. (Brennan et al. 2020)

Blogging

Short for web-logging, when someone writes a journal or diary like contribution and posts it on the internet for others to see

Body dissatisfaction

Negative feelings about body weight or shape. Also referred to as body shame, appearance concern, appearance self-worth, body shape concern and reduced body satisfaction (Garner, Olmstead, and Polivy 1983)

Body satisfaction

Positive feelings about body weight or shape (Wood-Barcalow, Tylka, and Augustus-Horvath 2010)

Body shame

Refer to body dissatisfaction

Body shape concern

Refer to body dissatisfaction

Body surveillance

The extent an individual habitually monitors their appearance (Manago et al. 2015; Arroyo and Brunner 2016)

Bounce rate

The number of people who drop out of the search after the landing page - they bounce out of the site instead of looking further.

Bounded system

All systems have boundaries where one system (including actors, activities & artefacts) can be somewhat separated from other systems. For example, in Facebook a ‘group’ is a bounded system.

Brand

Unique design, sign, symbol, words or a combination of these employed in creating an image (reputation) that identifies a product and differentiates it from other brands. The term ‘brand’ is also used to refer to a sponsor or the intangible idea or topic.

Brand attitude

What the public think, both factually and emotionally, when they hear a brand name. It can be a design, sign, symbol, words or a combination of these employed in creating a reputation that identifies a product (McLaughlin 2011). The positive or negative feelings and opinions of consumers toward a brand (Çadırcı and Gungor 2019)

Brand attributes

The set of characteristics that identify the physical, character and personality traits of the brand, similar to the attributes that allow us to consistently identify individuals

Brand equity

The commercial value that derives from consumer perception of the brand name of a particular product or service, rather than from the product or service itself.

Brand image

The general impression of a product held by real or potential consumers (reputation).

Bulimia nervosa

Engaging in cyclic episodes of uncontrollable eating that are followed by compensatory behaviours aimed at controlling weight. These may include vomiting, use of laxatives or diuretics, engaging in excessive exercise and/or fasting (National Eating Disorders Collaboration)

Buzz

(Online) conversation created by people over a popular interest in some ‘thing’.

Call to action

A concluding line or scene that tells people what to do about the situation (e.g. be safe by using condoms)

Celebrity

A famous person, especially in entertainment or sport (Lexico)

Challenge

A task presented to young adults by online moderators that requires thought and innovation to an issue or idea (first appeared in (Rounsefell et al. 2019))

Chrono-system

The patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as socio-historical circumstances.

Click bait

(In social media) sensationalist advertising specifically written to drive click-throughs

Co-creation

When two or more people create something together, collaboratively and in agreement with each other about desired outcomes. Note: this is not co-production whereby the ideation may occur outside the group producing the artefact (9, 10)

Co-design

A form of design that actively involves a variety of stakeholders in the design process. Its roots are embedded in theories of participatory design

Cognitive

Relating to or involving conscious mental activities (such as thinking, understanding, learning, and remembering).

Cognitive dissonance

The state of having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs or attitudes, especially relating to behavioural decisions and attitude change (discomfort is caused).

Cognitive processing/elaboration

The use of pre-existing knowledge in support of new learning i.e. relating new information to something you already know (Sun, Ye, and Wang 2015).

Comment (Facebook or Instagram)

When a user leaves a comment or replies to the post (Simply Measured 2017a)

Commercial marketing

Marketing for the purposes of making profit. Marketing is the set of activities that are involved in creating, distributing and selling products.

Community manager (social media)

(In social media) The person who creates the campaign and engages with the community of interest, including responding to comments and posts.

Conative

The aspect of mental processes motivating behaviour directed toward action or change and including impulse, desire, volition, and striving.

Consumer segmentation

Market segmentation is the process of dividing a market of potential customers into groups, based on different characteristics. The segments created are composed of consumers who will respond similarly to marketing strategies and who share traits such as similar interests, needs, or locations. The idea behind segmentation is to create and resource different marketing strategies for different groups of consumers (Moss, Kirby, and Donodeo 2009; Kubacki, Dietrich, and Rundle-Thiele 2017)

Consumer socialisation

Where consumer behaviours are acquired over time from the social network.

Consumer-generated advertising

Brand content created by consumers, such as a picture, video, or blog post about a product, often shared over social media (Study.com 17 June 2017).

Content

Social media content takes the form of text, images, videos and audio. It is posted on online platforms, blogs and wikis (see definition)

Contemplating Another Day

One of the six Living & Eating for Health Segments (LEHS), defined as - They are not currently prioritising healthy eating as it is not relevant to them right now but may be in the future. {Brennan, 2020 #1443}

Conversation

Conversations in social media are the series of interactions undertaken between participants in the system. These can be text, video or images. People within the system (insiders) understand the language being ‘spoken’ but outsiders may not understand the conversation.

Conversion rate

(In social media) The number of people that buy a product after seeing a post (page) in a given time frame divided by the number of who have visited the page (saw the post).

Cookie

A message sent from a website to a web browser (and back again) used to track usage of the site

Corporate brand

Has a broader scope than promoting products and services. The brand name is used in advertising to stakeholders. Importance is placed on the attitude and spirit behind the company e.g. Apple, Nike (Bhasin 2018)

Counter advertising

Where the advertisement is designed to respond to another advertisement. For example, anti-alcohol advertising, healthy food advertising, etc.

CPC

Cost per click (charges applied to advertising when the user clicks on the link)

CPM

Cost-per-million exposures

Creativity

The ability to create an advertisement that is sufficiently original (divergent from others) and relevant to the audience

Credibility

The degree to which people believe and trust what other people and organizations tell them about a particular product or service

Crowd sourcing

(In social media) The practice of obtaining input into an issue e.g. enlisting the help of a large number of people over the internet

CTR

Click through rate - i.e. the number of people who click on an ad from within the platform

Culture

Consists of the beliefs, behaviours, objects, and other characteristics common to the members of a particular group or society.

Cut-through

To gain attention from an advertisement (to cut through the clutter).

Cyber bullying

The use of digital communication to bully, intimidate or threaten someone.

Dark social

(In social media) The interactions that are hidden from the originator of the message e.g. links shared via email and not from within the platform or application are untraceable

Day parts

The parts of the day that media scheduling is broken up into in order to charge appropriate differential fees for coverage

Defensive avoidance

This is where people avoid an issue in order to protect themselves from the discomfort of engagement with the issue. For example, smokers avoid anti-smoking ads and buy covers for their ‘plain’ packaged cigarettes

Demarketing

The use of commercial marketing tools and techniques to reduce demand for a product or service.

Deontology

Where the morality of an action is based on whether the action is right or wrong using a series of predetermined rules rather than based on the consequences of the action

Descriptive norm

Typical patterns of behaviour, generally accompanied by the expectation that people will behave according to the pattern (what you see happening around you) i.e. Observed behaviours that lead to perceptions of what is normal (what people see as being performed by others).

Design thinking

Design thinking is a method adopted by designers to collaboratively solve complex problems. Design thinking is a process of collaborative systemic reasoning about the issue, the end user and possible outcomes; considering what is viable and feasible given the circumstances (Mummah et al. 2016)

Dialogic communication

Multi-way communication: A dialogue – a dialogic view of communication differs from a single source approach by being more humanistic, communication-centred, relationship-focused and participatory (i.e., advertising is monologic, single-way communication).

Digital ethnography

Digital ethnography describes the process and methodology of doing ethnographic research in a digital space. The digital field site is sometimes comprised of text, video or images and may include social interactions (Pink 2016; Brennan, Fry, and Previte 2015)

Directed communication

Communication that is directed to a specific group of people for a specific purpose and which makes a direct request of the individual. For example, a social change campaign on a platform such as change.org comes via a friendship social network, has a purpose and asks for specific action.

Disordered eating

A range of abnormal eating behaviours including dietary restraint, binge eating, skipping meals and dieting (National Eating Disorders Collaboration)

Distal

Distant from and only loosely connected to the object (person), still related but intervening system or sub-systems. For example, macro-systems are distant from microsystems

Divergence

The difference between one ad and another in the same ‘space’; that is, how different they are from each other (more divergent ads are more engaging).

Downstream social marketing

Social marketing strategies or programs designed to influence individual behaviour change

Drive for thinness

Excessive concern with dieting, weight preoccupation and an ongoing pursuit of thinness including a fear of weight gain and is a measure of anorexia nervosa (Hendrickse et al. 2017; Hanna et al. 2017).

Earned media

(In social media) when others promote the product or brand and direct ‘traffic’ towards the owned media sites

Echo chambers

(In social media) a situation where an individual’s beliefs are reinforced by group communications that repeat themselves (i.e. limiting new ideas and amplified repetitions of old ideas).

Ecosystem

The complex network of interrelated and interconnected elements that form the ecology in which an entity exists (e.g. geographical, biological, social, cultural, physical, historical, chronological, etc.)

Egalitarian meme

A meme that cannot be identified from an original founding meme that seems to have evolved simultaneously in multiple forums and across different platforms

Elaboration Likelihood Model

A model that proposes every message is undergoing the process of persuasion, affecting the attitude and views of the reader. There are two routes to persuasion, equally effective but used at different times:

• Central route: consists of thoughtful consideration of the arguments (ideas, content) of the message. The consumer is being an active participant in the process of persuasion. Requires motivation and ability.

• Peripheral route: When the consumer decides whether to agree with the message based on other cues besides the strength of the arguments or ideas in the message. When there is little motivation to think critically (Petty and Cacioppo 1986)

A two-process system (cognitive/central and affective/peripheral). The central route involves a high level of message elaboration in which the individual receiving the message actively thinks about the message. The resulting attitude change will be relatively enduring, resistant and predictive of behaviour. In the peripheral route, persuasion results from a person's association with positive or negative (affective) cues in the stimulus or making a simple inference (attitude change is not enduring unless cognitive processing takes place).

Elicitation consumption framework ECF

The ECF suggests that there is a difference in consumer responses between the elicitation of an emotion and the consumption of the product. That is, there is usually a gap in time and space between elicitation and consumption.

Emerging Adulthood

A theory of a prolonged transition from adolescence to adulthood in people aged 18 to 25 years present in developed industrialised countries where adulthood has been delayed and is now occurring later in life than in previous generations (Arnett 2000)

Emoji

Pictures that represent characters (derives from the Japanese for picture (eh) and character (moji).

Emoticon

Short for ‘Emotional icon’, it is a set of letters or keyboard symbols that symbolize an emotion. For example, ;-) is a winking emoticon

Endorsement

(In social media) Any advertising message that does not come from the original promoter (e.g. an influencer endorses a sponsor’s products or services)

Engagement

Refers to social media activities that include browsing, liking, commenting and sharing content. Also referred to as passive and active social media use (Fontein 2016)

An interaction with social media content or a post, for example when an individual clicks ‘like’ or ‘favourite’ or takes the time to comment on something that has been posted they are actively engaging with that brand’s content.

Enjoyment of sexualisation

The extent that a person seeks and enjoys expressing their sexualisation as a form of self-objectification (Manago et al. 2015; Hanna et al. 2017)

eSports

A multi-player online computer game played as a form of competition, particularly between professional players either as individuals or as teams.

Exchange

The process whereby two parties transfer something of value to one another.

Exergames

Video games that require the player to conduct a physical movement to participate in the game.

Existential guilt

This type of guilt is where people are aware of the differences between themselves and others and feel guilty as a result e.g. feeling guilty when seeing a family in poverty.

Exo-system

Links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual's immediate context (e.g. governance structures such as councils affect the individual but the individual rarely has an active role).

Expectancy value theories

This set of theories suggests that people will trade off their expectations of an outcome’s value to determine their level of motivation towards an issue (e.g. students may study harder if they expect there will be a reward for doing so, such as a better paid career position).

Experimental design

In the strict sense, experimental research is what we call a true experiment. This is an experiment where the researcher manipulates one variable, and control/randomizes the rest of the variables (in laboratory settings). However there are other types of experiment that do not necessarily use controls or limit variables.

Exposure

The opportunity for a reader, viewer, or listener to see or hear an advertisement (see also impressions).

Facebook

A social networking website where users can post comments, share photographs, and post links to news or other interesting content on the web, chat live, and watch short-form video.

Facebook fan

When a user follows a page, the user becomes a “fan” of the page on Facebook (Technopedia Inc 2018a)

Facebook interactions

Facebook interactions are the sum of the number of comments, shares and all reactions (no reference was given)

Facebook investment

The importance that Facebook plays to one's social life (Manago et al. 2015)

Facebook page

A business account on Facebook to promote business materials. Brands have “pages” on Facebook (Ramos 2014; Simply Measured 2017b)

Facebook profile

Individuals have “profiles” on Facebook i.e. a personal account where you communicate on a personal level

Facebook reactions

When a user expresses their reaction to a post by clicking either “like”, “love”, “haha”, “wow”, “sad”, or “angry” (Simply Measured 2017a; Facebook Brand Resource Centre 2016)

Facebook share

When a user “shares” (also referred to as tagging) or reposts the post (Simply Measured 2017c)

Fear appeal (threat appeal)

A persuasive message that attempts to arouse fear in order to divert behaviour through the threat of impending danger or harm. It presents a risk, presents the vulnerability to the risk, and then describes a suggested form of protective action.

Fear control

This is where a person manages their emotions by using coping strategies such as avoidance or problem solving

Fear Drive Models

These models suggest that fear is a motivational (driving) factor that leads people to be motivated to avoid activities that induce fear (e.g. avoiding smoking because you are afraid of cancer)

Feedback seeking

Refer to negative engagement

Filter bubbles

This is where the filters that can be applied by social media platforms that enhance advertising targeting can ensure that the information shown to the individual is limited to only those that the algorithm chooses for the individual. It can result in intellectual isolation and can amplify the effect of echo chambers.

Fitspiration

Images of fitness sports that aim to inspire others to engage in physical activity and healthy lifestyle behaviours. Refer to idyllic images (Tiggemann and Zaccardo 2015)

Flighting

A timing pattern in which advertising is scheduled to run during intervals that are separated by periods in which no advertising messages appear for the advertised item

FMCG

Fast moving consumer goods

FOMO

Fear of missing out

Founder based meme

A meme that is initiated by an original (identifiable) viral text or picture that is followed by many versions of the theme

Framing

Putting a ‘frame’ around the stimulus to ensure that the person responds in the way you want them to (e.g., positive framing leads towards the message and negative framing leads to avoidance). Sometimes called ‘priming’.

Frequency

Number of times an advertisement is printed or a commercial is broadcast within a particular period

Gamification

The application of elements of game play (such as immediate success feedback, continuous progress feedback and goal setting) to encourage engagement in activities, products or services.

Gatekeeper

The person who controls access to information, e.g. parents

Generative role taking

The taking of roles in online conversations to ensure active participation of members of the conversation or groups

Grassroots followings

Groups of people who have become followers of a site or influencer through contact with others in the group - i.e. they volunteer to join and have not been provided with an incentive to join

Groups

(In social media), Often formally convened clusters of people with similar interests. They usually have a ‘page’ on the platform and are administrated or moderated. Informal groups can coalesce and become formal over time.

Hashtag #

A key word accompanied by the # symbol indicating the topic(s) and interest areas of the post.

Health communication theory

In order to successfully influence an audience, there is a need to understand the needs and desires of the target audience and the barriers they may face to adopting the intended behaviour (Schiavo 2013)

Health Conscious

One of the six Living & Eating for Health Segments (LEHS), defined as - Eating healthy is important to them and they make conscious decisions about healthy eating based on what they believe is healthy.

Health halos

The act of overestimating the health effects of a product based on a health claim. e.g. low sugar can be inferred to be ‘good’ for you although the product may be high in fat and other forms of energy than sugar

Health promotion organization

An organisation that aims to promote health by “enabling people to increase control over the determinants of health and thereby improve their health” using a variety of strategies, including health education, mass media, community development and community engagement processes (Australian Health Promotion Association ; World Health Organization 2018)

Hedonic consumption

The consumption of products based primarily on the desire to experience pleasure and happiness (e.g. food)

Herd behaviour

The phenomenon of individuals deciding to follow others and imitating group behaviours rather than deciding independently on the basis of their own, private information (Baddeley 2010)

Heterophily

The propensity for people to enjoy and seek out diversity and/or difference. It is the opposite of homophily.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut that allows people to solve problems and make judgments quickly and efficiently; it may not be actively or cognitively processed.

HoE

Hierarchy of Effects, for example awareness, interest, desire, action (and any variations on this theme - e.g. the social involvement hierarchy).

Homophilous group

The degree to which pairs of individuals who interact are similar with respect to each other. Similarity includes demographics as well as interests and activities.

Human brand

Any well-known persona who is the subject of marketing communication efforts. Refers to both social media influencers (SMI) and celebrities (Thomson 2006)

Ideal self

Who "I" would like to be (not necessarily who I am or have been)

Identity

A person’s identity consists of who they feel they ‘are’. This includes ideals, beliefs and norms.

Identity theory

A family of views on the relationship between mind and body. E.g. Social identity, Self-concept, self-construal, Type Identity (etc.).

Idyllic images

Images of celebrities, friends and peers portraying perfect lifestyles

Impressions

In social media this is the number of people who might have seen a post

Information silos

Silos of information are closed to outside influences and members within the silo are unable to communicate freely with each other or to contribute to additional information

Informational ad

Advertising that is principally educational and describes product features and competitive advantages

Injunctive norm

Prescriptive (or proscriptive) rules specifying behaviour that persons ought (or ought not) to engage in (i.e. what others tell you to do)

Instagram

A social networking site that involves posting photos with the option of using enhancement filters, and nonreciprocal following of other users. Accounts can be private (request to follow others) or public (anyone can follow) (Lup, Trub, and Rosenthal 2015).

Instagram interactions

Instagram interactions are the sum of the number of likes and number of comments

Instagram likes

When a user clicks “like ”, which suggests that a post has resonated with a user in some way (Simply Measured 2017d)

Instagram profile

An Instagram profile shows you bio and Instagram posts. Brands have “pages” on Facebook and “profiles” on Instagram, but for consistency, papers refer to both as “pages” (Instagram)

Institution

Clusters of rules and cultural meanings associated with specific social activities. Common institutions are the family, education, religion, work, and health care.

Integrative model of behaviour change

IMBC theory suggests a higher probability that a behaviour will be performed if one has the intention to perform the behaviour, has the necessary skills and abilities required, and there are few environmental or other constraints (Fishbein and Yzer 2003)

Intrinsic motivation

The type of motivation that is driven by the individual themselves and is not externally derived. For example, a sense of pride is internally motivating whereas money is an external reward.

Journal entry

A log or diary kept by young adults to record their social media use and the content they were exposed to.

Landing page

A page that is created specifically for marketing the site / SNS. Sometimes called a ‘launch’ page. The landing page is not necessarily the home page. #

Laugh model

The use of entertainment, humour and viral devices to spread health messages

Learn-Feel-Do model

This model assumes that there are three key elements in creating effective advertising. An ad should help people learn about the product, feel positive about the product and then adopt the product - i.e. do something about the product (not necessarily in that order).

Lifestyle celebrity

A person who is famous or well-known because of their perceived credibility and expertise in the health and lifestyle industry

Lifestyle Maven

One of the six Living & Eating for Health Segments (LEHS), defined as - They are passionate about healthy eating and believe they are ‘super healthy’ as they actively follow a healthy diet.

Likability

Whether or not people ‘like’ the ad, are pleased with it or respect its intentions (i.e., much social marketing communication is not ‘likable’ in as much as people enjoy viewing it; however, if people respect the intentions then people may like the idea or brand).

Likes

(In social media) ‘one click’ interactions with a post - they can take multiple forms such as emojis which express a more nuanced validation of the message

Live streaming

When social media is used to stream live activities via the internet.

Living and Eating for Health Segment (LEHS)

These segments were defined from qualitative online conversations with young adults (18 to 24 years) to better understand young people’s motivations when it comes to food.

Using this data, six LEHS were developed that provided different profiles of young people based on their different attitudes, values and beliefs around healthy eating.

Lifestyle Maven, Health Conscious, Aspirational Healthy Eater, Balanced Allrounder, Contemplating Another Day, and Blissfully Unconcerned.

Long copy

Advertising where content is longer than usual, most often used for informational advertising

Loss aversion

Related to prospect theory, loss aversion is where an individual will evaluate a situation and seek to avoid losses. Consequently, choices framed as gains will be more acceptable than choices framed as losses.

Lurkers also “lurking”

Individuals on social media who view information, but do not necessarily comment or share (Technopedia Inc 2018b; Merchant et al. 2014; Hwang et al. 2010)

Observing the conversations of others

Macro-system

The society and culture in which individuals live (relates to Behavioural Ecosystem)

Market research

Market research involves the process of gathering, analysing and interpreting information about people or companies (a market) to better understand their needs and preferences (first appeared in Brennan et al, 2020, doi: 10.1186/s12966-020-00946-3)

Marketing mix

A combination of the 7Ps is the marketing mix. Product, price, promotion, place, partnerships, people and policy.

Maven

A trusted person who is has greater levels of knowledge than ‘average’ and who shares that knowledge with others.

Media

The total group of communication channels used to communicate with a target audience

Media multitasking

The concurrent use of multiple devices, platforms and digital mediums

Media schedule

Program or plan that identifies the media channels used in an advertising campaign, and specifies insertion or broadcast dates

Media-centric SNS

A media-centric social networking service helps connect people based on the form of media - e.g. YouTube (long form video) TikTok (short form video)

Mediator

Is a variable that acts as the mechanism by which an independent causes change to the dependent variable (Fritz and Leste 2016).

Medium (Plural = mediums)

Various means (advertising vehicles) such as billboards, magazines, newspapers, radio, television, mobile devices and internet by which messages are communicated to the public

Meme

An element of a culture or system of behaviour passed from one individual to another by imitation or other non-genetic means. In social media usually an image, video, piece of text, etc., typically humorous in nature, that is copied and spread rapidly by Internet users, often with slight variations

Memeticness

Digital content units (e.g. video, text) with common characteristics, created with awareness of each other, and circulated, imitated, and transformed via the Internet by many users

Meso-system

Interconnections between the microsystems, relationship between peers and the family and close connections

Message

The content of an advertisement

Message content

Underlying idea or theme in an ad, or the central or primary meaning and information, that passes from a communicator to a receiver (the 'thing' that is communicated)

Message credibility

How message characteristics (e.g. language intensity, message content, message delivery) impact perceptions of believability, either of the source or the source’s message (Metzger et al. 2003)

Metaknowledge

Knowledge about knowledge. It is at the heart of the learning process, which consists in transforming information into knowledge.

Metavoicing

Where users engage with others online and create a ‘voice’ that is more than an individual’s voice. That is, the individual is not voicing their own opinion but what they feel is the opinion of the group

Metrics

(In social media) Evaluations of data usually according to what is obtainable given the circumstances e.g. likes, shares, comments, click through rates, reactions, etc.

Micro-celebrity

People “amping up” their popularity over the Web using techniques like video, blogs, and social networking sites (e.g. Instagram, Facebook) (Senft 2008)

Micro-system

The institutions and groups that most immediately and directly impact the person: family, school, religious institutions, neighbourhood, and peers.

Microblogging/microblogging platforms

A type of blog in which users can post small pieces of digital content like pictures, video, or audio on the Internet

The practice of producing and publishing short, frequent posts to an online platform; distinct from traditional blogging in that posts are typically smaller in terms of content and aggregated file size [Any future Communicating Health papers should use this definition]

Mid-stream social marketing

Social marketing strategies or programs designed to influence middle level actors in the social marketing system - e.g. community organisations, local government

Mobile health or m-health

Health technologies that accompany the user such as wearable devices and applications to track health. For example a FitBit or an Apple Watch which track a user’s fitness data.

Monologic communication

One-way communication: Monologic communication involves manipulation and control just as one would treat a physical object. It is the embodiment of an I-It relationship and takes a one-way, transmission model approach to communication (see dialogic communication)

Moral self

Related to identity theory, the moral self is the 'self' that acts according to their values, meanings and moral framework (this may be in conflict with other identities e.g. social self)

Motivation

An unobservable inner force that stimulates and compels a behavioural response.

Negative body talk

Making negative comments about one’s body. Refer to negative engagement (Arroyo and Brunner 2016)

Negative engagement

Negative social media activities including engaging in body fat talk (e.g. “I’m too fat”), or a predisposition to seek negative feedback or validation from others (feedback/reassurance seeking) (Hummel and Smith 2015)

Network externality

The benefit (or deficit) that people receive from the platform that is an outcome of others using the platform. For example, Facebook has billions of users worldwide which provides access to vast numbers of social media accounts. As new platforms are introduced, they may not have the same network externalities as existing platforms and may not be able to compete effectively until they have a sufficient number of users.

Network informed associating

Where the relationship is informed by the social network. That is people engage in the group as a result of the inferred relationship between the groups’ attributes and the groups’ members.

Newsjacking

Hijacking popular events to increase coverage of a product or brand (e.g. promoting drug companies or face masks during a pandemic)

Nodes

People who form the basis of relationships and associations between entities in a social network

Normative

What is considered to be the usual or correct way of doing something

NSMC social marketing benchmark criteria

1) Offers a useful guideline to distinguish social marketing concepts and principles from other behaviour change approaches, such as public health; 2) ascertains the extent to which social change programs embed a social marketing philosophy; and 3) ensures a consistent approach to review and evaluate social change impact and outcomes.

Nutrition professional

An individual who holds a degree in Nutrition (or equivalent), with 3+ years’ experience working within the field ('NSA voluntary register of nutritionists ' 2019)

Objectification theory

Sexual portrayal of women in society promotes a culture where women are seen as objects for the viewing pleasure of others. It suggests that these influences acclimatise women in particular, to engage in self-objectification (Fredrickson and Roberts 1997a; Fredrickson and Roberts 1997b)

Objectified body consciousness

A constructed term relating to feelings of appearance self-worth, engaging in body surveillance, and enjoyment of sexualisation (Manago et al. 2015)

Online community

A virtual community where its members interact with each other around a shared interest, where interaction is mediated by technology via the internet. People join online communities through social networking sites, chat rooms, discussion boards, video games, blogs and virtual worlds

Online conversations

A multi-way dialogue between participants in an internet environment. It is informal, unstructured and dialogic (not mono-logic) in nature. It involves both listening and answering and develops over a period of time. It is not an online chat or interview

Online fat talk

Predisposition for women to negatively label their body as ‘fat’ when communicating with others. Refer to negative engagement (Engeln-Maddox, Salk, and Miller 2012; Walker et al. 2015)

Online forum

An online discussion group that allows its members with common interests to exchange open messages. It is hierarchical with a tree-like structure and may contain a number of sub-forums, each of which may have several topics

Online knowledge

Knowledge which is available online (such knowledge not always accurate)

Online panel

A group of research participants who have been selected to provide information in an online discussion forum at specified intervals over an extended period of time

Opportunities to see

The number of times that a person is likely to see a particular advertisement, used as a measure in advertising

Originality

Something that is unique and innovative, authentic, new

Orthorexia

Defined as a “healthy anorexia”, is viewed as an exercise of purification particularly in young females, where they limit their food intake to an amount beneath the national dietary recommendations (Musolino et al. 2015)

OTS

Opportunity to see (exposures or impressions)

Owned media

(In social media), Media that the promoter owns and operates themselves (e.g. websites, social media pages)

Paid media

(In social media) Where the promoter pays for the promotion (dissemination of the message)

Parallel process model

The parallel process model suggests that people consider threats alongside their sense of capacity (efficacy) to deal with threats (in parallel) and determine their actions accordingly (e.g. higher efficacy leads to problem solving and lower efficacy leads to problem avoidance).

Participation

Active contribution to a conversation about the topic

Partnership

One of 7Ps, partnerships involve the stakeholders (individuals and entities) that are associated with the social marketing product. They also include stakeholders who are willing to be part of a social marketing effort.

Passion-centric SNS

A passion centric social networking service helps strangers to connect based on shared interests - e.g. Reddit sub-groups

Passive use/consumption

Consuming content on social media without engaging with other users including reading stories and viewing user profiles. Refer to engagement (Verduyn et al. 2017)

Consumption that is not actively engaged in. For example, having television operating in the background while doing something else

People

One of 7Ps, people is the group of people and services that must be engaged in order to successfully deliver the product.

Persona

A persona is a simulated person, role or character adopted for the purpose of presentation to others. People may have different personas for different social media platforms.

Person in the pew

People who accept the ideals of healthy eating but are not actively adopting these practices at present. Changing their eating habits is not a current priority. They think they are “good”

Pester power

The ability of children to pressure parents into purchasing advertised products

PESTLE

Political, Economic, Socio-cultural, Technological, Legal, Ecological or Environmental factors

Place

One of 7Ps, place is where individuals will take up or access the product as well as how they will be reached or engaged. This definition goes beyond geographical location and logistics and emphasizes product placement and positioning.

Platform

Sometimes known as a social network site or service. Examples include Pinterest, Facebook, Instagram, etc.

Platform functionality

The functions (affordances ) of a particular platform - e.g. Twitter is 240 character broadcasting, Instagram is a visual sharing platform, Tik Tok is a short form video sharing platform, etc.

Platform society

Where social media platforms shape the formation of societies (van Dijck and Poell 2015)

Platform swinging

The act of using more than one social media platform and routinely rotating among these platforms, as opposed to switching from one platform and abandoning another

Plug ins / add-ons and extensions

A component of software that adds a specific function to a page or site e.g. Adobe Flash Player, QuickTime Player, Twinword Finder, etc.

Policy

One of 7Ps, policy is the set of upstream activities that are needed to facilitate a favourable environment for social marketing programs.

Positive body image

People with positive body image respect and appreciate their body for its physical and functional abilities (Wood-Barcalow, Tylka, and Augustus-Horvath 2010)

Positive psychology

The scientific study of human flourishing, and an applied approach to optimal functioning. It has also been defined as the study of the strengths and virtues that enable individuals, communities and organisations to thrive

Post

A status update or an item (such as a photo or video) on a social media channel, blog or forum (Fontein 2016)

Adding something to the social medium

Post-truth era

Relating to a situation in which people are more likely to accept an argument based on their emotions and beliefs, rather than one based on facts ("Post-truth definition " 2019)

Post truth is a political concept that suggests that there is no longer an objective standard for ‘truth’

Predisposition

The fact or condition of being previously inclined towards something: e.g. a predisposition to think optimistically, to be socially anxious, etc.

Preferential attachment

Where value is accumulated according to how much value you already have e.g. the rich get richer or the poor get poorer. For example, influencers with large numbers of followers will find it easier to gain more followers

Presence

(In social media) the virtual space that is occupied by the person (i.e. their online presence)

Price

One of 7Ps, the price is the cost(s) associated with adopting the product. Costs are not just monetary and can include time, efforts and consequences.

Priming

Using stimulus (ads, images, messages, word associations) in sequences to pre-determine people’s responses. For example, if I show you an iceberg you may feel cold, then I show you a nice woollen coat and you will consider it, even if it is actually hot outside

Product

One of 7Ps, the product is the desired behaviour, response or social change

Programmatic advertising

(In social media) The automated buying and selling of online advertising. It is usually facilitated by artificial intelligence in targeting and communicating (e.g. designing ads for specific audience characteristics)

Promotion

One of 7Ps, promotion is how individuals are reached with communication messages.

Prospect theory

This theory suggests that people value losses and gains differently when making decisions. All other things being equal, people are more likely to seek gains than to avoid losses.

Proximal

Close to and interconnected with the object (person). For example, micro-meso systems are proximal but macro and micro systems are not (proximal influences are more motivating than distal influences)

PSA

Public service advertising or announcement (usually government advertising)

Public policy

A system of laws, regulatory measures, courses of action, and funding priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by a governmental entity or its representatives.

Publisher

Creator of content for distribution via social network services (channels and/or platforms). Often there is no real distinction between a publisher and a platform

Random controlled trial RCT

A study design that randomly assigns participants into an experimental group or a control group. As the study is conducted, the only expected difference between the control and experimental groups in a randomized controlled trial is the outcome variable being studied. Used mostly in biomedical scientific research.

Re-targeting

Repeating communication with people who have already responded to online advertising or messaging

Reach

Estimated number of the potential customers it is possible to reach through a an advertising medium or a promotional campaign

Reactive guilt

Where a person assesses the harmful impact of their past behaviours on others

Real time social media marketing

The immediate seizing of a non-marketing media ‘news’ story as an opportunity to promote a product or brand. For example, promoting electric cars during a fuel crisis

Reassurance seeking

Refer to negative engagement

Recall

The extent to which an audience remembers an advertisement, what is said, how it looked or how they felt about it.

Recency

The tendency to remember the most recently presented information.

Recognition

An ability to remember having seen something before.

Relevance

How closely the elements of the ad campaign match what a person seems to be looking for and how closely the content aligns with their lived experiences.

Relief theory

An approach to humour that suggests that humour reduces (relieves) psychological or emotional tension

Reputation

The beliefs or opinions that are generally held about someone or something

Response efficacy

A person’s belief in their ability to respond to a situation as well as their belief in other’s ability to respond to a situation

Responsible drinking

Drinking that is undertaken at a level that does not result in any harm to self or others

Reverse bandwagon heuristic/effect

Consumer perceives the lowest credibility (or other outcome) when the bandwagon is highest (e.g. number of followers) (Lin and Spence 2019)

Saints

People who are exemplars and set apart by their adherence to healthy eating

Salience (building)

The degree to which a brand is thought about or noticed when a customer is in a buying situation. The ad should enhance the memorability of a brand and its linkage to other important memory structures in a buying situation

SEM

Search Engine Marketing. The process of growing a following through the use of paid advertising. e.g. Google Ad Words.

SEO

Search Engine Optimisation. The process of increasing the visibility of a website through the use of meta-data, tags and words associated with advertising.

Segmentation

The set of procedures involved in dividing a large group of people into smaller more manageable groups. Segmentation is usually undertaken by clustering people into groups based on similarities of characteristics - e.g. age, income, location of residence, attitudes, behaviours, etc.

Segmentation “lens”

Analysing text from the online conversations using the healthy eating ‘segments’ (LEHS) identified through initial thematic analysis to help guide further analysis

Self-determination theory

SDT posits people can be self-motivated and self-regulating in terms of their own behaviours and motivation and rewards can be self-generated or intrinsic (Deci and Ryan 1985)

A theory of human motivation concerned with people’s innate psychological needs. Concerned with the motivation behind people’s choices that occur without external influence.

• Autonomy: person’s need to feel that his or her activities are self-chosen, self-governed, and self-endorsed.

• Competence: A person’s innate, life-span tendency to seek feelings of effectiveness, achievement, and challenge in his or her activities.

• Relatedness: A person’s need to feel a sense of closeness with others (Ryan and Deci 2000)

Theory that suggests people need three things to be motivated and happy with/in life: autonomy (self-managing), competence (ability) and relatedness (connection to others)

Self efficacy

A person’s ability to manage the situation, as well as the belief in one’s ability to manage the situation

Self-objectification

The degree a person is occupied by the look of their body to others. Self-objectification is associated with development of body shame and body dissatisfaction (Hanna et al. 2017; McKinley and Hyde 1996)

Semantic analysis

(In social media) Analysis that evaluates the words being used in posts and assesses them against some objective criteria e.g. patterns of usage, frequency of use, novel words, implied meanings, etc.

Sensitivity to advertising

Where people are more or less disposed to view an ad favourably

Sentiment

(In social media) The process of categorising online opinions to evaluate attitudes towards issues (e.g. usually positive, negative or neutral)

Sentiment analysis

(In social media) The formal quantitative assessment of social media engagement in terms of whether or not the post is positive or negative (or neutral).

Service dominant logic

This marketing framework suggests that exchanges of all types can be viewed as a form of service provision and that at the heart of the exchange is the idea of co-creation of value.

Service system

The group of processes and people that interact to provide a service

Seven Ps (7Ps)

The social marketing mix: Product, Price, Promotion, Place, Policy, People and Process.

Share of voice

One brand’s percentage of advertising messages in a medium compared to all messages for that product or service

Shareability

Something that is shareable via social media - usually meaning having an element that increases the likelihood of sharing with others

Shares (Social Media)

A social media behaviour involving a combination of social media activities including tagging friends, tweets, posts, comments on posts and shares (e.g., forwarding to content). Shares are a reported social media metric.

Sharing

The act of providing non-original content on social media (e.g. photos, links, text, etc.)

Shockvertising

The use of sex, disgust, vulgarity and horror to gain attention.

Sinners

People who oppose (actively or passively) the healthy eating messages they have heard (e.g. think the government is lying to them about obesity and healthy food)

Snob effect

In economics: Snob consumers see the price as an indicator of privilege and avoid using popular brands in order to have an inner-directed consumption experience, i.e. the need to be the only consumer of a product.

On social media: When consumers see others have liked/engaged with a post and, therefore, do not want to engage as they do not want to be associated with others (Uzgoren and Guney 2012)

Social advertising

Media messages designed to educate or motivate members of a public to engage in voluntary social activity such as community service, donating blood, giving up smoking and other social outcomes.

Social capital

The value that an individual receives as a result of their social networks. Value can be social, economic, educational, political or technological.

Social comparison theory

SCT suggests that people are inclined to compare themselves to others as a means of self-evaluation and this predisposition to compare is stronger when the comparator is considered similar to oneself (Myers and Crowther 2009; Festinger 1954)

Social dominant logic

Is a theory in social marketing that argues that people are central to exchange and social marketing systems and that all outcomes within a system are forms of value creation for system participants.

Social grooming

Engaging in online socialising behaviours aimed at building relationships and alliances. Including browsing, checking user profiles, liking, commenting and messaging (Kim and Chock 2015)

Social marketing

Social marketing seeks to develop and integrate marketing concepts with other approaches to influence behaviours that benefit individuals and communities for the greater social good. It seeks to integrate research, best practice, theory, audience and partnership insight, to inform the delivery of competition sensitive and segmented social change programs that are effective, efficient, equitable and sustainable: Consensus definition International Social Marketing Association (Australian Association of Social Marketing, International Social Marketing Association, and European Social Marketing Association 2013; Grier and Bryant 2004; Brennan 2014)

Social marketing planning process

The set of activities that are involved in understanding the market, setting objectives and designing programs to bring about social change

Social media

Any web-based communication channel, dedicated to community-based input, interaction, content-sharing, or collaboration

Social media content

All images, videos and text published on a social media platform for user consumption and engagement

Social media influencer

Social media influencers (SMI) can be defined as individuals or groups of individuals who can shape attitudes and behaviors through online channels (Freberg et al. 2011)

A social media influencer is a person on social media who has established a large audience and credibility in a specific area e.g. fitness, nutrition, fashion (Fredrickson and Roberts 1997a; Mediakix Team 2017; Itsines 2018)

Influencers who have usually built a significant group of people (followers) who are interested in their expertise, interests, activities or opinions

Social media platforms

Websites and applications that enable users to create and share content or to participate in social networking (Rouse 2016)

Any web-based communications channel dedicated to community-based input, interaction, content-sharing and collaboration. Including social networking sites (SNS) (e.g. Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat), micro-blogs (e.g. Twitter), content communities (e.g. YouTube), websites and applications facilitating forums (e.g. Reddit), social bookmarking (e.g. Pinterest), and wikis (e.g. Wikipedia) (Klassen et al. 2018)

Social mores

An epiphenomenal term that includes norms, values and ethical and moral frameworks at a societal (macro-system) level

Social networking site /service (SNS)

Online platforms that provide the opportunity for people to engage in social networking activities

Social self

(In identity theory) the person that is disclosed to others (may or may not be the 'real' self). It is the self that is created in relation to the group

Social system

The interconnected people within the social setting (e.g. family, friends, community members, colleagues, etc.)

Source credibility

A communicator’s positive characteristics that affect the receiver’s acceptance of a message. Includes the speaker’s attractiveness, trustworthiness, and expertise (Ohanian 1990)

Split run tests

This type of testing involves splitting the database into separate components and sending each group a different ad or intervention. This will test the efficacy of the ad that is ‘run’ for each group.

Subjective norm

Self-perceived social pressure to engage or not to engage in a behaviour (what people think they should do).

Synchronous

Social media which is in relatively the same time - e.g. FaceTime conversations are synchronous, YouTube posting is asynchronous

Systems theory

The philosophical belief that every ‘thing’ is a part of a system and that every action within a system is influenced by and influences other parts of and actors within the system. A system is usually distinguished by its structure and purpose and has boundaries in time and space.

Systems thinking

The process of understanding how things, regarded as systems, influence one another within a whole. In nature, systems thinking examples include ecosystems in which various elements such as air, water, movement, plants, and animals work together to survive or perish

Tag groups

Usually associated with Facebook, tag groups are where the post is associated with a real or hypothetical group using hashtags (i.e.#), often for comedic purposes. For example, #COVIDidiots is a term that surfaced during the 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic Crisis and was used to refer to people who overreacted to the crisis, or who did something stupid during the crisis.

TARPs

Target audience rating points: A TARP is the proportion of the audience viewing a program in the time slot.

Theory of Planned Behaviour

This theory asserts that attitudes and beliefs lead to behaviour and that behaviours are rational outcomes of intentions. The TPB is associated with the Theory of Reasoned Action.

Thin-ideal

Refer to slim women’s bodies portrayed as the ideal body shape to attain health and happiness (Groesz, Levine, and Murnen 2002)

Ties

The connections between people

Touch-points

The variety of contacts that can be made between advertiser and consumer in a particular time period; opportunities to connect (not necessarily actual connections)

Traditional Media

Television, billboards, magazines, newspapers, etc. Usually not digital or online, however, it can be argued that ‘new’ media is now well over 30 years old.

Traditional media channels

For example, television channels, Foxtel, Prime, ABC, CNBC, etc.

Trait

An aspect of personality that is relatively stable. For example, extraversion, openness to experience, conscientiousness, neuroticism and agreeableness

Trans Theoretical Model

A behaviour change model that encompasses a number of theories based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour

Transformational ad

Advertising that aims to relate emotional experiences to the product or service being advertised (transforming consumer feelings)

Triggered attending

Where a person is not actively engaged in an online conversation until they are ‘triggered’ into becoming engaged - e.g. by a mobile phone alert or friends’ direct message

Troll

Internet bully or someone who is trying to pick a fight (usually through negative comments on a post).

Twitter

An online news and social networking site where people communicate in short messages called Tweets. There is a 280-character limit ('What exactly is Twitter? And what is 'Tweeting'?' Date unknown)

Typology

A classification according to types or characteristics

Upstream social marketing

Social marketing strategies or programs designed to influence public policy and system wide solutions to social marketing challenges - e.g. to influence national governments or global institutions

User generated content

Content that is created by the user i.e. not the platform or publisher.

Utilitarianism

Where the most ethical choice is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number

Valence

(In emotions research) emotions classified along the pleasant-unpleasant continuum, where either highly pleasant or highly unpleasant will be higher in valence (attraction or aversion).

Valenced appraisals

Evaluations of an ad that invoke emotions that are on a spectrum - e.g., positive or negative emotions.

Vampire effect

Sucking attention away from content. i.e. when the attention getting device takes all the attention and the message content is overlooked

Vanity metrics

Metrics that make the content provider feel good about themselves but do not provide meaningful data for enhancing business performance (e.g. counting likes)

Verisimilitude

The appearance of truthfulness and reality (not necessarily factual)

Viral

The tendency of an image, video, or piece of information to be circulated rapidly and widely from one user to another (rate of transmission of message)

Virality

The quality or fact of being viral

Wall posts

Social media pages are called walls. A wall post is when someone adds content to the page or wall

Weak tie hypothesis

The tendency for social relationships to form as tight knit groups (strong ties) or as more loosely allied groups (weak ties). Strong ties will lead to stronger ‘bridges’ between groups of social networks. For example, close friendships form stronger bonds than colleagues at work or fellow students.

Wicked problems

The term was first coined by Rittel & Webber (Rittel and Webber 1973) and is widely used to describe an issue (e.g. obesity prevention) that is socially complex, with many interdependencies and no universal solution. For social marketers, the inherently conflicting consumer and stakeholder behaviours that are difficult to define represent a ‘Wicked Problem’ (Brennan 2014)

Widget

A graphical user interface (GUI) that displays information or provides a specific way for a user to interact with the operating system or an application. e.g. an invitation to share a post via one of the widgets - envelope = email, Facebook symbol = Facebook, etc.

Wiki

A website or database developed by a collaborative community

WOM

Word-of-mouth (virality)

YouTube

A public video-sharing website where people can experience varying degrees of engagement with videos, ranging from casual viewing to sharing videos in order to maintain social relationships (Lange 2007)