GEM 3
Sea Ice and the Pangnirtung Community
Introduction
The Last Ice (2020) - National Geographic tells the story of Inuit communities fighting to protect the rapidly disappearing Arctic that has been their home for centuries.
Climate change is leading to loss of sea ice in the Arctic. This affects the local and global environment as well as indigenous peoples who rely on sea ice for their lives and livelihoods. This GEM summarizes the issue of sea ice loss in terms of the scientific context and one particular community that is especially negatively affected, the Pangnirtung Inuit tribe.
Table of Contents
20041214a001-MM-PG.mp3“[The sea ice is] very very important to Inuit, because it’s our qaujiti, which means we were born to it and we’ve always lived in it…If the sea ice doesn’t form anymore, although we still get snow, our life would drastically change.”
-Manasie Maniapik of the Pangnirtung Inuit tribe
Manasie Maniapik (Carleton University, 2011) moved to live with the Pangnirtung after growing up in Sarnaturarjuq. He is now a member of the Canadian Rangers and an experienced carving artist.
Scientific Context
What is Sea Ice?
Sea ice is frozen ocean water which forms and melts in the ocean. It grows during the winter months and melts during the summer months. In contrast, icebergs, glaciers, and ice shelves originate from ice on land. Sea ice is described by its extent, thickness, age and its movement with the winds and ocean currents. Sea ice extent is a measurement of the area of the ocean where there is at least 15% ice coverage. Typically, late winter Arctic sea ice covers 14-16 million square kilometers. Ice thickness varies over a course of a year but can grow to be several meters thick. Changes in the formation and distribution of Arctic sea ice affect global climate, arctic ecosystems, and indigenous populations.
Pancake sea ice on the Arctic Ocean Dave Walsh, 2009
Why is Sea Ice Important for People and Wildlife?
Pangnirtung Community
Changes in sea ice can directly impact the health of Arctic communities and the presence of sea ice is important for Inuit culture, hunting, and local livelihoods. Inuit communities like the Pangnirtung, located on Baffin Island, Canada, have relied on sea ice for transportation as it is faster than traveling on land and easier than traveling on open water. The ice enables access across waterways (fjords), to reach fishing lakes and caribou hunting grounds. Sea ice is also an important hunting platform because it provides habitat for marine and migratory wildlife. Over generations, Inuit people have developed a deep understanding of sea ice processes. Today, sea ice remains a vital component of subsistence lifestyles across the Arctic (Geomatics and Cartographic Research Centre, C. U., 2011)
The ringed seal is a valuable food source for the Pangnirtung Ringed seal by seeman6628.
Arctic Wildlife
Polar bears, seals and walruses rely on sea ice for hunting, breeding, and migrating. They face declining birth rates and restricted access to food sources as sea cover and thickness declines. Polar bears are now wandering closer and closer to Pangnirtung towns when hunters used to have to travel far to find them. More harp and hooded seals are being spotted, but ringed seals are rapidly disappearing. More bowhead whales are appearing, but narwhals have started to vanish since hunting them opened up in the spring (Department of Environment Fisheries and Sealing Division, 2013). These changes show how climate change is driving species out and allowing others to propagate, leading to a rapidly shifting ecosystem that may not be able to keep up with the loss of sea ice.
What Causes Sea Ice to Change?
As global temperatures rise, Arctic sea ice is melting. The white area that once covered the top of the world is turning blue and the planet is losing an air conditioning system which has helped regulate and stabilize earth’s climate for thousands of years. The decline of sea ice has global climatic effects that intensify an already warming climate. One feedback stems from turning the Arctic Ocean from white to blue, which changes the region's albedo or the amount of solar radiation reflected off a surface. Since sea ice has a bright surface it has a much higher albedo compared to other Earth surfaces. Replacing sea ice with open water means that instead of reflecting 80% of the sunlight, the ocean absorbs 90% of the sunlight causing warming across the Arctic (see illustration to right). Such changes turn a system that was once an air conditioner into a heater.
Natural variability and human-caused global warming both impact Arctic sea ice decline. Historically, natural variations of the Arctic Oscillation (AO) (which is a bit like El Nino) led to either wind patterns that trap ice in the Arctic ocean where the ice can thicken or alternatively winds push ice away from the Arctic into warmer waters. After the mid-1990's, the natural pattern shifted away from its historical pattern, and human-caused warming has caused sea ice to decline sharply. (NSIDC, 2020).
Illustration showing the ice albedo feedback loop. Credit: MetOffice
Illustration showing two phases of the Arctic Oscillation which affects sea ice. During the negative phase, winds tend to push ice away from the north polar region whereas during the more stable, positive phase, the sea ice tends to stay in the Arctic Ocean and thicken.
Arctic Sea Ice Trends
Since 1978, satellites have monitored sea ice growth and retreat and revealed an overall declining trend in Arctic sea ice. In September 2002, the summer minimum ice extent was the lowest since 1979 (NSIDC, 2011). This was the beginning of a series of record sea ice lows in the Arctic. The new summer lows, along with poor wintertime recoveries, have contributed to the decline in Arctic sea ice along with much less multiyear ice and more annual ice. In addition to declines in sea ice extent, sea ice age has also decreased. In March 1985, sea ice more than 4 years old composed 33% of the Arctic Ocean ice pack compared to March 2020 where it only composed 4.4% (Lindsey and Scott, 2019).
Graph showing arctic sea ice extent as of September 15th, 2020, along with data from several past years (2012-2020). The 1981-2010 average is in dark gray. Credit: National Snow and Ice Data Center
Credit Trent L. Schindler
This animation shows the area of minimum sea ice coverage from 1979-2020. In 2020, the Arctic minimum sea ice covered an area of 3.36 million square kilometers.
Arctic Ocean Temperatures
The normal temperature for the salty Arctic ocean is -1.8˚C, or 28.8˚ F. The Arctic waters cannot be much colder than this--or else they would freeze into sea ice. Since 2000, Arctic temperatures have been consistently above their 1981-2010 average. (Scott, 2020).
When atmosphere temperatures rise, the ocean absorbs more and more heat. Water has a high heat capacity, so when heat is trapped in the atmosphere, much of it is absorbed by the oceans. This warming means enhances sea ice melts in the polar regions.
What Is Causing Climate Change?
“In its Fifth Assessment Report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, a group of 1,300 independent scientific experts from countries all over the world under the auspices of the United Nations, concluded there's a more than 95 percent probability that human activities over the past 50 years have warmed our planet” (2021).
When greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere, the molecules absorb heat, keeping the planet warmer depending on the proportion of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The five primary greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), nitrous oxide, and water vapor.
The plot above shows 800,000 years of CO2 data measured from ice cores (purple line) compared recent values.
How do we know the current levels of greenhouse gases are unusual? Ice from Antarctica contains ancient air trapped within the ice. These show us that pre-industrial carbon dioxide levels were between 180 and 280 ppm (ppm stands for parts per million) for the past 800,000 years. It is currently nearly 420 ppm.
The last time carbon dioxide ppm was this high was three million years ago, when Earth’s average temperature was about 2.5˚centigrade (4.5˚F) warmer, and oceans were twenty meters (66 ft) higher than current levels. (Lindsey, 2020).
Why Is Sea Ice Important for Earth's Climate?
Sea ice melting contributes to the decline in Earth’s overall albedo (reflectivity). Albedo is how scientists measure the reflectivity of a surface, with 0 being black/dark, and 1 being perfectly white/reflective. Snow and ice have an albedo of about 0.80, meaning eighty percent of light and heat is reflected off its surface. (NASA, 2014). With sea ice melting, the overall albedo of our planet is decreasing, meaning that less and less heat is being reflected back into space, and more is being trapped by the oceans. This creates a positive feedback loop – as more heat is trapped by oceans, more ice melts, lowering the albedo even more, which traps more heat, and on and on.
Rising Arctic Ocean temperatures result in sea level rise as (a) the water expands because warmer water is less dense than cooler water and (b) glaciers that reach the ocean are bathed in warmer water causing them to melt. Sea ice melting does not directly cause sea levels to rise. Just as a glass of ice water does not overflow when the ice cubes melt and disappear, melting of sea ice does not cause sea level to rise.
This photo of glaciers from the west coast of Greenland illustrate the concept of albedo - the ice is highly reflective, but the dark water and land absorb light and convert it to heat. Source: Delphotostock, n.d.
To help visualize albedo and sea ice extent, check out this gif which demonstrates seasonal changes as well as how albedo has declined from 1950-2020 (a__square__peg, 2021).
Stakeholders
Pangnirtung: Geography and Importance of Sea Ice
Pangnirtung is an Inuit community in the Canadian territory of Nunavut and is located on Baffin Island. It is located on a coastal plain at the coast of Pangnirtung Fjord.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pangnirtung-uptown.jpg
The geography of the community itself is important because it sits on a flat plateau surrounded by high mountains and sea ice. Sea ice is the most important travel platform in order to enter and exit the community, with a key interest directed towards the ability to access hunting and fishing grounds. Without consistent access, it hinders one of the most important means of survival for this community because it makes it harder to access food, clothing, heat, materials, and other resources.
20041213a001-AY-PG.mp3Interview with a Resident of Pangnirtung (Dec. 13, 2004); https://sikuatlas.ca/index.html?module=module.sikuatlas.pangnirtung.intro
Above is an audio clip of an interview with a resident of Pangnirtung who describes how residents rely on sea ice for their livelihood. (Dec 13, 2004)
"[The ice] is our only road in the winter time that can take us to animals that we can eat. And especially for people like [me], [I] really rely on the ice to form properly so [I] can fish for [my] livelihood.”
To the right is a video of a resident of Pangnirtung describing how the conditions of the sea ice are not normal for the time of year and how it impacts the local community.
02_May2004_Pang_Floe_edge_ trip.mp4https://sikuatlas.ca/index.html?module=module.sikuatlas.pangnirtung.sea_ice_changes
The community relies on hunting and gathering techniques as well as fishing. Their diet consists of seafood (shrimp, cod, clams, Arctic char, seal, and whale) as well as caribou, rabbits, and berries. The melting of sea ice in this area has caused fisherman and hunters to change and adapt their traditional methods of fishing, which has allowed them to develop a better understanding of the freezing and thawing processes and key ice features. However, the change is happening too quickly to adapt to dangerous conditions.
They've learned to make tools, hunt, fish and navigate the land. But their surroundings are predictable because temperatures are warmer, ice is thinner, permafrost is disappearing, and animals are changing their habits. Sheila Watt-Cloutier, a Canadian Inuit activist, spoke at the Canadian Association of Science Centres in Toronto in 2017 and stated:
“Climate change in the Arctic is not just some environmental issue. It really is a matter of livelihood. It's a matter of food for our people. It is a matter of individual and cultural survival.”
Below are three audio clips of interviews with residents of Pangnirtung describing how the melting of sea ice has affected their culture, hunting, and seal populations.
20041214a001-MM-PG.mp3https://sikuatlas.ca/db/904d044049ab721b7ed08b35a488f48a/20041214a001-MM-PG.mp3
Caption: Interview with Manasie Maniapik, Pangnirtung (Dec. 14, 2004). He describes the importance of sea ice for Inuit culture.
Story: “It’s very very important to Inuit, because it’s our qaujiti, which means we were born to it and we’ve always lived in it…If the sea ice doesn’t form anymore, although we still get snow, our life would drastically change.”
20040517a001-JQ-PG.mp3https://sikuatlas.ca/db/904d044049ab721b7ed08b35a493b30a/20040517a001-JQ-PG.mp3
Caption: Interview with Joanasie Qappik, Pangnirtung (May 17, 2004). He describes the importance of sea ice for hunting.
Story: “[The ice is] part of the hunter’s life and it can have an effect on his livelihood. [With] the conditions that we have today, [I’m] just using you and [Eric] as an example, [you] have our own place where [you] work where [you] can make [your] money, just by sitting here. But as a hunter, [I] have to hunt out there, and [I] depend on the animals to bring in the food as subsistence and also the skins, depending on what kind of animal it is, to be able to make money off that. So it has already had an impact on how much a hunter, not only [myself] but other hunters, as to how much money [we] can bring into the family.”
20041213a001-PV-PG.mp3https://sikuatlas.ca/db/904d044049ab721b7ed08b35a48a0a36/20041213a001-PV-PG.mp3
Caption: Interview with Paulosie Veevee, Pangnirtung (Dec. 13, 2004). He describes the importance of sea ice for seal hunting and how important denning areas are to the survival of young seals.
Story: “This was a very important seal denning area, it’s gone. And if that continues those seals, the seal babies or pups are going to be too small when they’re forced into the water. [I] know baby seals don’t have much fat on them, and whenever they don’t have much fat on them they last only a few minutes in the water.”
Pangnirtung: Effects on Mental Health
Not only has the effects of climate change impacted this community's livelihood and access to resources, but it has also taken a toll on individuals’ mental health, but particularly the youth. They are particularly vulnerable to destabilized mental health in a changing world, and suicide amoung young Inuit in the Canadian Arctic is at an epidemic level.
"Inuit identity, conceptions of the self, and mental wellness are directly and intimately linked to the environment," writes Ashlee Cunsolo Willox, director of the Labrador Institute at Memorial University of Newfoundland, who has conducted extensive research on the link between climate change and mental health in Inuit communities. Being out on the land - hunting, fishing, and camping - is an integral part of being an Inuit, and the change happening around this community is depressing and disorienting.
https://www.rcinet.ca/eye-on-the-arctic/2014/01/16/nunavut-coroner-to-launch-inquiry-into-suicides/
Mike Papoosie, a 14 year old male, describes how the changing climate has impacted his mental health. He states:
“Each person has their certain time to snap. Hunting used to kind of relieve that. Hunting always brought me peace and a sense of balance. The quiet. So silent. Hunting out on the land -- it’s like setting your mind free.”
Mike explained that he does not go hunting anymore. He does not have a boat or the experience required to navigate an increasingly dangerous environment. “These days, hunting is a gamble even for the most experienced hunters.” And it will continue to be.
"I want to be a hunter," Markoosi Illauq says. "I wish I could hunt until I die."
(Photo: Camilla Andersen)
Additionally, the social determinants of higher mental distress among Inuit have been studied by Dr. Thomas Anderson. To find the relationship between higher mental distress and social determinants of Inuit, Dr. Anderson used an adaption of Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami’s model of social determinants of Inuit health.
Summary of results:
Data showed that food security was one social determinant associated with mental distress for Inuit men.
Data showed that the probability of being in mental distress was 26% for those who had little to no food security, compared to the 10% for those who had moderate food security.
With climate change and the melting of sea ice, the access to food becomes more and more insecure. It was concluded that this effect of climate change for Inuit communities in the Arctic is detrimental for their mental health, individually and as a community.
To read more on how effects of climate change are detrimental to the mental health of Inuit communities:
Secondary Stakeholders
"Arctic Drilling" by Truthout.org is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
Extractive Industries
Despite receding sea and land ice, more than 60 financial institutions around the world have pledged to restrict or stop financing Arctic oil exploration, including all five major U.S. banks. This is because drilling anywhere in the Arctic has major financial challenges due to its physical challenges, especially due to the increase in fossil fuels and the increase in temperature. Simply put, as the arctic warms resource extraction becomes more expensive and dangerous.
Read more here.
Shipping Industries
Polar sea ice has long served as a barrier when attempting to ship goods from one northern territory (i.e., Russia, Alaska, and Canada to another (i.e., Sweden, Norway, Greenland). If routes across the once frozen arctic are navigable, such arctic shipping lanes could lead to the development of a "Polar Silk Road".
These routes are already seeing higher traffic. From 2016 to 2017, the arctic shipping lanes saw a nearly 35% increase in tons of shipped cargo.
Increased shipping traffic in the arctic could may also have geopolitical implications as concerns of territorial water claims, fishing rights, and illegal trafficking are raised.
"Arctic Council Diagram" by arctic_council is licensed under CC BY-ND 2.0
The Arctic Council
The Arctic Council is an intergovernmental group of arctic governments that seeks to address issues faced by member states and their citizens. The member states include Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States. There are also observer states and Indigenous Permanent Participants. Observer states participate in projects and task forces, while Indigenous Participants may participate directly in Council meetings, but neither can vote on Council matters. The Council has no ability to enforce its recommendations, the member states must take action themselves.
The members of the Council are intimately connected with the arctic and, therefore the health of the arctic environment and that of its residents. As such, both the challenges and opportunities that melting sea ice brings are of interest to the members of the Arctic Council.
For more information on other stakeholders affected by the melting of sea ice in the Arctic:
Ethics and Equity
Melting sea ice has the effect of reducing valuable habitat and homes for many species and Inuit peoples. As Arctic sea ice melts, the surface ice that over forty Inuit tribes rely on is lost to the ocean. Land-bound and certain seafaring creatures lose their homes without the ice, which can mean rapid extinction for these species. The Pangnirtung rely on these animals to survive, both physically and culturally.
The loss of sea ice is not only a local problem, but a global one that impacts us all. While sea ice melting does provide channels for commerce for big companies, the loss of this ice means a warmer planet and a runaway greenhouse effect that decimates agriculture and ecosystems, which people and animals around the world rely on to survive. It also means rising sea levels because as sea ice melts its reflective surface disappears, which means less sunlight is reflected and more heat gets absorbed on Earth. This effect warms the globe and causes land-originated ice to melt as well, which results in rising sea levels.
While some industries profit from melting sea ice, the Pangnirtung and other tribes, the animals, the ecosystems, and people around the world suffer from the adverse effects of a warmer Earth.
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