Optional Themes

Knowledge itself has an intrinsically political dimension, as questions about how knowledge is constructed,

used and disseminated are infused with issues relating to power and politics. Political issues and decisions

also affect our daily lives in many different ways.

This theme provides an opportunity for discussions about the practice of politics and our everyday

interactions with politics in the world around us. For example, this theme is intended to provide an

opportunity to engage with high-profile contemporary debates and examples, such as those around “fake

news” and “post-truth politics”. It considers where our political views and values come from, and how these

inform and influence other areas of our lives. It encourages students to consider the role and origin of their

own political beliefs and positions, as well as exploring issues relating to how groups make decisions that

affect large numbers of people.

Another key focus of this theme is the “politics of knowledge” and issues around knowledge, power and

oppression. This could, for example, include discussion of the concept of “epistemic injustice” and

situations where someone’s knowledge or expertise may be dismissed because they are a member of a

particular social group. It could also include exploration of examples relating to the control of knowledge;

for example, cases where political leaders and groups (such as the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia) have

attempted to eradicate specific bodies of knowledge, “rewrite” history or persecute educated elites.

Within this theme, there could be discussions around the impact of technology and the potential of new

technologies to give political actors new powers. For example, students could consider the increasing focus

on data analytics in shaping political policies and decision-making. They could also consider the impact of

social media on political discussion, or the challenges of reducing complex political issues into media-

friendly “sound bites”.

Another interesting possible area of discussion could be around persuasion, manipulation, misinformation

and propaganda. This could include discussion of examples where facts and knowledge have been

systematically distorted for political gain, or where political actors have denied or subverted knowledge. It

could also lead to a discussion of the differences between political rhetoric and propaganda, as well as

interesting reflections on the role of think tanks, pressure groups, political activists, funded research and

fact checkers.

It is crucial that discussions within this optional theme stay focused explicitly on knowledge rather than

consisting of general discussions about politics or political issues. The following examples of knowledge

questions can help to ensure this focus.

For many people, religion has a major impact on how they understand the world. It permeates their

thinking and influences their understanding of other areas, providing a backdrop to all of the other

knowledge they possess. Religions themselves also generate specific claims about knowledge, as well as

competing assertions and interpretations.

This theme provides an opportunity for students to think carefully, critically and respectfully about

knowledge and religion, and to reflect on the significant impact that religion has on how we view the

world. Religion is often regarded as a sensitive area in which discussions should be had with caution, in part

because people have very personal and deeply held convictions regarding religious matters. Yet many of

the features that make religion such a contentious topic are exactly the features that make it highly

engaging for students and hugely relevant for a course such as TOK.

Religion provides rich ground for TOK discussions as religions are often complex systems of beliefs,

practices, assumptions and values. Religions also raise interesting issues around the exchange of

knowledge between individuals and groups. Within their discussions in this theme, students are

encouraged to consider the diversity of perspectives within individual religions as well as across different

religions; for example, considering fundamentalist, conservative and liberal perspectives within Christianity.

An example of a particularly interesting area of discussion in relation to this theme concerns the concept of

evidence. Critics often argue that religions lack convincing evidence to support their claims and beliefs.

However, others argue that criticism surrounding the evidence for religious claims is misplaced, arguing

that religious knowledge is an example of a kind of knowledge that is not based on empirical evidence.

Indeed, in some traditions belief that is not based on evidence is seen as superior to belief that is based on

evidence, as the demand for concrete evidence is seen to signify a lack of faith or a misunderstanding of the

nature of religion.

Another interesting area to consider could be the relationship between religion and morality, and whether

religion and ethics are inextricably linked. For example, students could consider whether religion provides a

way to systematize concepts of right and wrong, or whether religious claims carry any particular obligation

or responsibility for the knower.

It is crucial that discussions within this optional theme stay focused explicitly on knowledge rather than

consisting of general discussions about religion. The following examples of knowledge questions can help

to ensure this focus.

In recent years there has been increasing global awareness of the historic and ongoing injustices that many

groups of indigenous peoples have faced, and of how threats to indigenous societies can lead to a loss of

traditional knowledge and cultural diversity. For example, in 2007 the UN adopted the “United Nations

Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples”, which includes the statement that “Indigenous peoples

have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and

traditional cultural expressions, as well as the manifestations of their sciences, technologies and cultures”.

This optional theme provides an opportunity to undertake a more detailed exploration of knowledge that is

principally bound to a particular group, culture or society. It focuses on knowledge that is deeply

embedded in the culture and traditions of particular communities of knowers, and how what might be seen

as “traditional” indigenous knowledge and societies operate today.

In their discussions in this theme, it is important that students are encouraged to reflect critically on the

category “indigenous societies” itself. For example, this could consist of discussion of the history and

context of the emergence of the word “indigenous” and its contested meanings. It could also include

discussion of the power relations that influence hierarchies of how knowledge is classified and validated.

Students should be encouraged to consider the diversity of indigenous societies, as well as the diversity

within these societies, and to avoid the assumption that all members of a particular culture or society will

share exactly the same outlook and values. Students should also be encouraged to engage with specific

examples rather than generalizations; for example, they could explore the impact of the building of the Ok

Tedi mine on the Wopkaimin people of Papua New Guinea, or the importance of music and traditional

craftsmanship to the Namaqua people of Southern Africa.

This theme provides an opportunity for discussion of areas such as the focus in many indigenous societies

on a holistic view of knowledge, and on the particularly long-standing and close relationships between

many indigenous societies and the natural world. It provides an opportunity for rich conversations around

examples such as the embodiment and transmission of knowledge in traditional artistic and cultural

practices, rituals and objects.

Another interesting area of discussion within this theme could be the impact and legacy of colonialism on

indigenous societies, or how external influences, such as globalization, have brought about changes and

challenges in relation to the ownership and custodianship of knowledge in indigenous societies. There

could be discussion of how some kinds of knowledge have often been devalued; for example, through an

emphasis on the primacy of science, or the viewing of oral tradition as inferior to the written word.

It is crucial that discussions within this optional theme stay focused explicitly on knowledge rather than

consisting of general discussions about indigenous societies. The following examples of knowledge

questions can help to ensure this focus.