MYP Individuals and societies 

Related Concepts in Geography

Causality (cause/ consequence)

Causality is the relationship between cause and effect and the internal and external factors that influence this relationship. 

Geographers understand that behind every geographical phenomenon—be it physical or human—there is an outlying “cause” which leads to an “effect”; the consequence(s) of which can either be known or unknown. Causes can be direct or intervening, and they can be internal and external. Geographers study causality not only as fixed  and end points of geographical phenomena, but also in the events and actions that occur in between these points. An example of which is the causality of plate tectonics; geographers analyze the cause and effects of plate tectonics, but also plate tectonic sub-themes such as disaster management and P and S waves. Causality in geography is inherently linked with the key concept of “change” and can exist across a wide spectrum of times, places and spaces, another of the individuals and societies key concepts.

Culture 

Culture helps shape, define and guide civilizations and individuals and it influences the relationship between them and the environment. Cultures are constituted by learned behaviors and values shared by groups and transmitted through socialization. Geographers study cultural traits of places in terms of language, customs, beliefs, dress, images, music, food and technology. Units that explore the related concept of culture could include issues of cultural diffusion, cultural contestation, and the process of consumerism. 

Disparity and equity 

Equity involves concerns about fairness and justice. Disparity is the uneven distribution of a given quality, indicator or resource and it can be opposed to the concept of equity. Geography is often the study of the condition or fact of being unequal—recognizing that the world around us has inequality, disproportionate opportunity and discrepancy, which, creates disparity. What causes the gap between those that have and those that have not? What does it mean “to have” and to “have not”? What is the perception of a disparity? As a related concept, disparity should have a degree of scale and harness the essential drivers of disparity: economics, opportunity, access to resources, choices, values and freedom. Inequality might be based on gender, ethnicity, age, location, citizenship and income, among other variables. 

Diversity 

The point or aspect by which things differ is critical to the study of geography both in the human and physical senses. Both the human and physical world have differences that intrinsically mesh to create a planet of diversity and a unique world. Places, environments and peoples are diverse. Diversity can be investigated over time and space. The focus could be on physical or cultural diversity.

Globalization 

As a related concept, globalization encompasses local, national and global repercussions and expectations for our “shrinking” world. It has been characterized by some geographers as a process of time–place convergence and it is characterized by an increasing interdependence among peoples and nations. The cultural, political and economic interconnectedness of the global economy is an undeniable trend that has been amplified by rapid improvements in technology and communication systems. Globalization can be simultaneously positive and negative for people and the natural environment depending on the range of changes that result and the perspective of the analyst. Globalization as a concept has also been questioned by some who have preferred to speak of processes of “westernization”, “globalization” or “mundialization”. 

Management and intervention 

Management can be defined as the human intervention in both natural and human contexts to achieve desired ends. MYP geography courses should consider the ways in which humans respond to the challenges of managing quantity and quality of resources, as well as the consequences of management. Often we see these as ways of solving problems through finding ways to preserve unique components of our lithosphere (land/waste management), hydrosphere (coastal/ water management), biosphere (conservation and animal/plant/agricultural management) and atmosphere (clean air management). Management can be embedded into political geography as a related concept by looking at governance through laws or education to enable better choices. Decision-making and management are dependent on the differences in the balance of power held by different stakeholders (see related concept of power). 

Networks 

Networks are interconnected groups or systems. Networks are usually composed  of nodes or parts that depend upon each other; when one of these nodes or parts  changes it usually affects the other parts. These individual parts of a network usually exist within a measurable hierarchical scale. In geography, the concept of networks can be explored in a vast array of sizes and level of complexity.  A network can range from the populations of herbivores within a national park to all of the lakes, aquifers, rivers and streams in the Amazon Basin. Also, networks can be explored at the world systems level with the interaction between the core and the periphery. Geographers understand that most of the processes they study are not isolated phenomena but rather interconnected pieces of a greater network. Networks are intrinsically linked to the key concept of “systems” and they exist across a wide spectrum of times, places and spaces, another of our key concepts. 

Patterns and trends 

Patterns are regular arrangements of something in a study area (space or place) and trends are regular arrangements of something over time. Patterns and trends can be established at different levels of analysis or at different scales, from the local to the national and regional, to the global. Patterns and trends can also be used as important tools to help predict and anticipate geographic processes in both human and natural contexts. Patterns and trends in geography are inherently linked to the concept of “systems” and they exist across a wide spectrum of times, places and spaces, another of our key concepts.

Power 

Power of individuals and of groups can be defined as a capacity to make things happen. Within geography, the balance of power can be considered in terms of physical processes, such as the power of erosion versus deposition. The balance of power is also significant in terms of human development and interaction—the relative power of government, transnational corporations, multilevel government organizations, civil society organizations and the rights of individual communities and citizens. MYP geography courses should seek to understand not only how people and environments are interlinked with and within themselves but also how power underpins those relationships. 

The concept of power raises the issue of equity and the rights of different groups, including gender groups, and the rights of indigenous peoples in the competition over resources. Competition in geography is the struggle among conflicting interests. Competition over resources (land, food, timber, water, oil and other energy sources) is central to the study of modern-day geography and it raises the question of the rights to resources and power over them. 

Processes

Processes are measured movements in the physical, human or cultural world to reach particular results or consequences, marking gradual changes in geography. These can have expected or unintended outcomes. This as a related concept is widely applicable across all areas of geography. A process that is particularly important for geographers is that of development. Even though the definition of development is subject to much debate (especially regarding its indicators), it can be understood as a social, economic and political process that enables the rise in the standards of living of the population. 

Scale 

Scale represents the proportional relationship between a certain distance on a map and a certain distance on the Earth’s surface. Scale as a related concept looks at the local, regional, national and international/global framework that the subject specific content is applicable to. Use of this related concept emphasizes  that challenges, problems and ideas can be analyzed at one of these scales and/or the interrelation among them. There should be recognition that they do not only happen in situ but also have an effect on each other.

Sustainability 

The concept of sustainability implies the notion of living within our means and it is central to an understanding of the nature of interactions between environmental systems and societies. It can be defined as the use of global resources at a rate that allows natural regeneration and minimizes damage to the environment (DP Environmental systems and societies guide [January 2008]). 

The use of resources (physical, human, cultural) in geography is the foundation for many topics relating to depletion or damage (both temporal and permanent) of the resource and its carrying capacity. Concepts such as “carrying capacity”, “ecological footprint” and “natural capital” are enmeshed in the related concept of sustainability. Following the DP Environmental systems and societies guide (January 2008):

Carrying capacity can be defined as “the maximum number of a species or ‘load’ that can be sustainably supported by a given environment”. 

Ecological footprint can be defined as “the area of land and water required to support a defined human population at a given standard of living”. 

Natural capital can be defined as “a term sometimes used by economists for natural resources that, if appropriately managed, can produce a ‘natural income’ of goods and services”.

Related Concepts in History

Causality (cause and consequence)

Causality is the relationship between cause and effect and the internal and external factors that influence this relationship.

In history, a cause is something that gives rise to an action, event, phenomenon, or condition. A consequence is a result or an effect of an action, phenomenon or condition. Causes and consequences are often examined together in relation to a specific event, phenomenon or time period, particularly over the “short term” and “long term”. The problem of “multiple causality” has also been central to historiography.

Civilization

Civilization is a concept used to describe forms of social organization that are usually large, complex and have achieved a certain level of urbanization and cultural development. To become a civilization, a society usually undergoes a series of change processes, which lead to social development and organization in the society. Even though the concept of civilization was originally associated with a greater degree of advancement or development of a social organization, this relationship has been questioned by some historians for containing an overt value judgment.

Conflict

Conflict can develop from inequalities in distribution of power and may manifest itself in many forms: protracted disagreements or arguments; prolonged armed struggles; clashes of opposing feelings or needs; serious incompatibilities between two or more opinions, principles, or interests. Historians study conflict between individuals and societies over time and across place and space, and they also examine how conflicts can be sources of continuity and catalysts for change.

Cooperation

Cooperation is the action or process of individuals or societies working together towards the same end. Historians examine the cooperation between societies, individuals, and environments in order to determine the positive, negative, short-term, and long-term factors that define/derive a historical event or process.

Cooperation can be a catalyst for change or continuity. Cooperation between actors implies certain levels of responsibility.

Culture

Culture encompasses a range of unique experiences, behaviors, customs and ways of knowing within human communities throughout history. Culture is usually transmitted from generation to generation and it affects the way people perceive their world and the way they behave. Culture can be dynamic or static and is often examined by historians in relation to the time, place and space of historical events, processes or developments. Historians often examine changes in culture in order to make comparisons between the past and the present. Culture is a system.

Governance

Governance refers to mechanisms and processes that regulate authority in a given organization. It can apply to state and non-state institutions. Throughout time, people have organized governments in order to meet the needs of communities and individuals. Groups have created institutions and processes that have many forms and functions. Monarchies, republics, tribes, parliaments, presidents, dictators: these and other patterns of rule express a range of human values and reflect varied understandings of history and culture. At the heart of governance are questions about the distribution of resources, the making of laws, and the balance of power between individuals and the communities in which they live. Democratic governments are accountable to the people who choose them.

Identity

Identity is the combination of the values, beliefs and experiences that define, shape and inform who we are, our perspectives and how we behave as individuals, communities, societies and cultures. Identity shapes historical processes and interpretations. Identity is shaped by external and internal influences and it is relational (the notion of “we” as opposed to “them”). This concept refers to how both individual and group perceptions of the self, form, evolve and are expressed.

From a historical perspective, identity can be examined as a cause or consequence of an event, idea or process. Additionally, the notion of citizenship appears as a politically and historically relevant form of identification on the part of peoples.

Ideology

An ideology is a system of ideas and ideals, which can form the basis of political or economic theories, policies and actions. Ideologies usually encompass systematic arrangements of premises and assertions that are used to interpret the world and make normative assertions about how it should be organized. Ideologies can evolve and change over time in order to meet the needs of a group of people or a society. Ideologies can be derived from the place and space in which a group of people or a society is located. Ideologies can evolve into political, economic or social systems and these systems can impact humans in a variety of ways. For example, through the definition of certain rights and responsibilities.

Innovation and revolution

Innovation incorporates the understanding of processes that drive change and invention.

In history, this concept looks at the process of generating new ideas, events, movements, products or solutions through the alteration, transformation, reorganization, restructuring, rearrangement, or renovation of existing ideas, events, movements, products or solutions. Innovation involves individuals and societies because they use their capacity to create, contrive and initiate a capacity that can lead to both positive and negative consequences in the short term and the long term.

Interdependence

Interdependence is the state of two or more individuals, groups or societies being reliant on each other. This mutual dependence is often derived from a need for individuals, groups or societies to grow, develop, change and/or advance.

Interdependence can lead to a variety of results, both positive and negative. These results can be the same or different for the parties involved in the interdependent relationship. As well, these results can change depending on the time period and location in which the individuals, groups and/or societies exist. Relations of interdependence are not necessarily horizontal. Historiography can also study processes of dependency, domination and power between peoples or nations.

Perspective

Perspective is a concept of a different nature as it is more clearly related to the craft of the discipline. Perspective is the way someone looks at something taking into consideration all of the things that have happened with that thing in the past and the relationship between the viewer and the thing in the past being viewed.

For historians, perspective implies a need for understanding different sides of an event.

Significance

Significance is a concept of a different nature as it is more clearly related to the craft of the discipline. It refers to the quality of having great value taking into account the historical context. Historical context is the political, social, cultural, and economic setting for a particular idea or event. In order to better understand something from history, we must look at its context—those things that surround it in time and place and that give it its meaning or value. In this way, we can gain, among other things, a sense of how unique or ordinary an event or idea seems to be in comparison to other events and ideas.

Objectives for Individuals and societies

A. Knowing and understanding

Students develop factual and conceptual knowledge about individuals and societies.

In order to reach the aims of individuals and societies, students should be able to:

i. use terminology in context

ii. demonstrate knowledge and understanding of subject-specific content and concepts through descriptions, explanations and examples.

B. Investigating

Students develop systematic research skills and processes associated with disciplines in the humanities and social sciences. Students develop successful strategies for investigating independently and in collaboration with others.

In order to reach the aims of individuals and societies, students should be able to:

i. formulate a clear and focused research question and justify its relevance

ii. formulate and follow an action plan to investigate a research question

iii. use research methods to collect and record relevant information

iv. evaluate the process and results of the investigation.

C. Communicating

Students develop skills to organize, document and communicate their learning using a variety of media and presentation formats.

In order to reach the aims of individuals and societies, students should be able to:

i. communicate information and ideas using an appropriate style for the audience and purpose

ii. structure information and ideas in a way that is appropriate to the specified format

iii. document sources of information using a recognized convention.

D. Thinking critically

Students use critical thinking skills to develop and apply their understanding of individuals and societies and the process of investigation.

In order to reach the aims of individuals and societies, students should be able to:

i. discuss concepts, issues, models, visual representation and theories

ii. synthesize information to make valid arguments

iii. analyze and evaluate a range of sources/data in terms of origin and purpose, examining value and limitations

iv. interpret different perspectives and their implications.

Information on these pages is from the MYP Subject Guides and the MYP Project Guide. International Baccalaureate Organization. 2014. Print.