The History of Cosmetics

Makeup is hardly a new phenomenon. From Egyptian pharaohs, Greco-Roman empires, and Chinese dynasties, ideals of beauty and social exclusivity have persisted since the dawn of humanity.

Ancient Origins

By Jenna Reppas

Beginning with 6000 BCE Egypt, makeup was used by men and women of all social classes to enhance and honor godliness. However, fine applicators and bejeweled, ivory storage boxes marked the wealthy users from the non-wealthy, whose tools were limited to clay pots and stones.2 Most notably, Egyptians lined their eyes by painting kohl, made from metals, ash, and almonds.1 Not only did this provide protection from the sun, but also was meant to ward off spirits associated with the evil eye. Additionally, people of ancient Egypt powdered their eyelids with green and blue pigments to represent the gods Horus and Re, as well as wore lipstick from hues of ground beetles.2

The next piece of evidence for makeup use in antiquity comes from writings in the Hebrew Bible, in which the Book of Jeremiah criticizes cosmetic adornments as wicked and self-indulgent, claiming "in vain you beautify yourself."6 Similarly, ancient Greeks and Romans strived towards a more natural appearance. Many believe these groups only used honey and olive oil for skincare cleansing and moisturization. Also famous during the Roman period were more sophisticated hygienic and bathing practices. While there is evidence that plants and minerals were mixed to color cheeks and lips, just as charcoal was used to bolden eyes and eyebrows, such application was associated with disdain or brashness, since true beauty was believed to take the form of morality and character.6

Another example comes from 3000 BCE-600 CE China, where royals utilized nail polish to indicate their social status.2 As such, high-profile leaders wore silver and gold, lower-ranked officials wore black or red, and the poor classes were forbidden from having colored nails. Chinese women also wore light colored foundation from white powder, as a means to distinguish themselves from darker skinned working classes who spent their lives working outdoors. As a contrast against white foundation, high class women wore red cheek powder, darkened their eyebrows, and painted their lips in the shape of a heart with red vermillion. One interesting observation from this time is the fact that eyebrow shapes fluctuated during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE), providing an early instance of changing beauty trends.2

Makeup's use has since continued and adapted with the ever-changing trends of various institutions and reigns of authority.

Royally Curated Beauty

Scholars believe that, throughout the Middle Ages, pale skin was hailed as the beauty norm, as evidenced through artistic paintings. During the Renaissance, physical beauty was embraced through skin lighteners and hair dyes.6 Similar to writings in the Jewish Old Testament, 16th-century Christians also frowned upon heavy makeup and associated it with deception.2

At the height of the Elizabethan Age in 1550s England, however, women began to mimic the appearance of the queen by thinning their eyebrows, whitening their skin, and coloring their lips and cheeks.1 One specific practice included painting the skin with a lead and vinegar mixture called ceruse, which led to hair loss making an enlarged forehead the new beauty standard. However, the lead and mercury in these products seriously endangered women’s health. Their side effects ranged from muscle paralysis to early death, ultimately being responsible for shortening female life expectancy.1

However, each of these trends was extremely subjective. For example, the 1900s began with Queen Victoria claiming makeup was unladylike and vulgar. As an alternative, women brought color to their face by pinching and biting their lips and cheeks, or by secretly applying naturally-appearing rouge. Women who did wear makeup were often considered prostitutes.2

Early 1900s American Glamour

Now a newly formed nation, American beauty standards began to diverge from their English predecessors, since following the 18th century Revolutionary War, makeup was no longer regarded as socially acceptable.3 Instead of being sold commercially, women relied on home recipes to subtly lighten their complexion, diminish blemishes, color their lips and cheeks, as well as darken their eyebrows and eyelashes. Women therefore sought to appear pale, but rosy, and with bright, open eyes.3

Beauty ideals were also closely dependent on fashion, since bodily visibility, and henceforth susceptibility to criticism, was determined by clothing.4 As such, the 1800s in America saw two opposite beauty standards. The first was a symbol of fragility, as women tightened their corseted waistlines, were admired for their small hands and fingers, and often attempted to appear unhealthy, a style known as "consumption chic." Unsurprisingly, feminine beauty standards in America, as in many other cultures, evolved to satisfy the preferences of men. Thus, 19th-century women were expected to appear delicate, in need of protection, and susceptible to damage. In regard to cosmetics, women were best described, by men, when "her complexion [was] white, with a blush of pink in her cheeks."4

Midcentury standards turned to favor bustier women with large hips and heavy legs.4 Most often, this image was associated with lower-class actresses and prostitutes, but was becoming more mainstream with the rising popularity of theater. Just before the turn of the century came the Gibson Girl, an illustrated ideal of American beauty featuring a slender waist but curvy bust and hips, as well as long, voluminous hair.4 Around the same time, cosmetics were regaining their presence on the private market, as they were sold through independent agents and entrepreneurs. While some products were available in stores, white shop owners refused to stock African-American beauty products.3

With the rise of portrait photography, and increased affordability of mirrors, makeup was becoming increasingly popular; however, everything changed during the golden age of cinema.1 As film actors emerged from the stage, they continued to wear heavy makeup, helping popularize extravagant looks both on screen and on the red carpet. Between Hollywood stars and flapper dancers, women began to draw inspiration from dramatic mascara, eyeliner, dark eyeshadow, and bright lipstick. Popular trends included finger waves in hair and thin, rounded eyebrows. These looks were further propagated by the rising influence of the radio and print media.1

In 1914, celebrity hair and makeup artist Max Factor formulated a cake-less foundation that revolutionized film makeup.1 Later, he began selling this foundation along with lip glosses and eyebrow pencils, promising to make their public purchasers as beautiful as their favorite movie star. In 1915, the Maybelline Company was founded, their breakout product being a mix of petroleum jelly and coal dust to serve as the first mascara. Revlon then emerged by popularizing fast-drying lacquer nail polish. Control of the cosmetic industry therefore began to shift from independent female entrepreneurs to male-owned corporations and department stores responsible for mass marketing and sales. This set the stage for new, competing products to enter the scene in the coming years, both catering to and helping establish future beauty standards.1

WWII and Postwar Culture

Many of the beauty standards in the 1930s and 1940s emerged from the illustrations of Esquire, an erotic gentleman’s magazine. For instance, beauty in the 1930s resembled that of film stars who, instead of being admired for their bust size, were famous for their beautiful faces and thin legs. The sensual ideal was therefore that of a 1920s golddigger, with a slim waist, hips, rear, and wearing high heels. In the 1940s, the Esquire illustrator changed, and legs as well as busts began to be fetishized. This was also when the sale of nylons, stockings, and garters began to explode.4 An interesting cosmetic trend during this time was tanned skin.3 Before, such an appearance was criticized and equated with a working class woman. However, now a tan identified a modern woman who partook in outdoor recreation and leisure. This was a way for white women to experiment with different "exotic" identities, after which they were free to return to their fair complexion, a privilege from which African-American women were of course excluded.3

During WWII, cosmetic spending increased as women whose husbands were away at war gained independence and purchasing power.3 Both young and mature women were more inclined to embrace their flirtatiousness through rouged cheeks, darkened eyebrows and eyelashes, voluminous rolls in short hair, and, most famously, bold red lipstick. This also represented a desire to preserve feminine identity during a time when women were urged to enter the workforce and even military roles like nursing. In fact, rationing restrictions were modified to exclude cosmetics, as lipstick was considered an essential feature of American identity and consumerism. With shades like "Victory Red," lipstick was marketed to inspire boldness and a fighting spirit in women, their applicators even made from recycled bullet casings.3

After the war, makeup was marketed to encourage a new feminine identity, that of the capable mother responsible for maintaining a nuclear family. Stars like Audrey Hepburn were praised for their subdued and classy sensuality, whose look included red lipstick but was more soft and natural. However, the newly formed Playboy magazine catered to an alternative male desire for curves, busts, and hips as they featured "playmates of the month" like Marilyn Monroe, considered a more "earthy" celebrity. Thus, women were judged by two mutually exclusive dualities, that of the respectable housewife as well as an object of promiscuity.4

Later Decade Changes

The social and political climate of the 1960s led to interesting competing beauty trends. For one, what many call "bosom mania" was in full swing, as Playboy featured women with larger and larger breasts, eventually to the point of sagging.4 However, feminist movements of the time sought to rebel against these ideologies, through protests and bra burning demonstrations. The rise of the Beatles led to British trends influencing popular culture, making slenderness more attractive along with the ability to wear mini skirts and low-rise, buttocks-labeled designer jeans. Supermodel Twiggy also became a trendsetter for intensely flared eyelashes and dark eyeshadow.4

The 1970s marked an era of youthful experimentation. Penthouse introduced the appearance of public hair into the centerfolds, and other magazines started photographing genitalia.4 Models became thinner and fashion featured loud colors and unconventional shapes. These ideas were also incorporated into cosmetics with playfully bright pastel eyeshadow. Similarly, the 1980s was known for neon colors, both in clothing and in eyeshadows. Pop icon Madonna especially propelled the trend of bold, brightly colored lips. In the 1990s, grunge fashion was the new craze, with the emergence of darker, boldly-lined lips, crimped hair, and textured patterns.5

Keeping up with the 2000s

Through the rise and fall of civilizations, through monarchies, through wars, and fads, my archival work has demonstrated that makeup is an ever-evolving but persistent practice in female and female-identifying individuals. Today, cosmetics represents a $40 billion industry.1 The 2000s marked the explosion of the media, featuring reality television, celebrity involvement in product endorsements, and eventually the pervasiveness of social media. Vogue magazine especially became a major vehicle for projecting beauty standards, as each issue sets the tone for both fashion and beauty in a particular season by highlighting specific styles, designers, and models with various looks and body types. These preferences cycle in and out of style, from severely underweight Victoria's Secret angels to the popularization of the curvy hourglass figure by Kim Kardashian. The most popular techniques that products aim to target include foundation to even skin tone and soften blemishes, as well as facial contouring to shrink nose width and define cheekbones and jawlines. Seeking the large, bold eye, there are serums to lengthen eyelashes, as well as a multitude of eyeshadows, eye liners, and mascaras. Lip plumping is achieved through liner, lip gloss, and lipstick, and different mattifying or highlighting creams and powders cater towards those who prefer varying levels of sheen and dewiness. In terms of hair care, there exists an array of hair relaxers, curl creams, and oils that aim to leave air frizz-free and smooth, so as to be easily styled.1

Many believe these trends seek to create a more smooth, symmetrical face that enhances feminine features. However, the specificity of these images all point toward the same Eurocentric ideal of beauty, the ideal that we were taught to praise and feature during my time at Vogue. In reality, this industry has existed since the beginning of time to satisfy a certain aesthetic ideal and increase one's sense of social status. More often than not, these ideals are decided upon not by women themselves, but larger industries seeking to profit from the insecurities of women and subsequently sell products that promise to make them feel beautiful. Most critically, this pattern has especially harmed minorities who are intentionally excluded from Western ideas of beauty, prompting increased product usage, and, as exemplified throughout this project, subsequent harm and health disparities.

References

How Makeup Works. (2011). HowStuffWorks. https://people.howstuffworks.com/about-makeup.htm
Jood’s Brief History of Makeup. (n.d.). Halifax Public Libraries. https://www.halifaxpubliclibraries.ca/blogs/post/teen-volunteer-joods-brief-history-of-makeup/
Make-up. (n.d.). Smithsonian Institution. https://www.si.edu/spotlight/health-hygiene-and-beauty/make-up
Mazur, A. (1986). U.S. trends in feminine beauty and overadaptation. The Journal of Sex Research, 22(3), 281–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224498609551309
Top Beauty Trends of Each Decade of the Past Century—’60s ’70s ’80s ’90s Makeup. (n.d.). L’Officiel USA. https://www.lofficielusa.com/beauty/top-beauty-trend-by-decade-makeup
Why Did We Start Wearing Makeup? (n.d.). Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/story/why-did-we-start-wearing-makeup

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