Developed by Edward Titchener, structuralism seeks to analyze the adult mind by organizing conscious experiences to discover the basic components of the mind. Proven unreliable by variability of reactions to the same stimulus.

William James focused on the purpose of behavior and mental experiences, rather than its structure, in a school of psychology known as functionalism. 

• Modern psychologists have developed new perspectives applying to the study of psychology:

  • Behavioral – observing actions and determining what triggers them; believe that mental processes are unobservable & all behavior is learned and can be controlled 

  • Humanistic – humans have the desire to reach their full potential; emphasize free will and motivation 

  • Psychodynamic – emphasizes the unconscious mind; repressed memories, free association, & dream interpretation 

  • Biological – physical basis for behavior, emphasis on nervous and endocrine system 

  • Cognitive – how humans gather, store, and process sensory information, focus on memory, thought, and problem-solving 

  • Socio-cultural – how do culture and society affect our behavior, thoughts, and feelings

  • Evolutionary – how the principles of evolution explain psychological processes and phenomena, focus on natural selection 

• Experimental: a research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result

• Descriptive/Correlational: a research method in which the investigator cannot manipulate variables; meant to describe patterns of behavior or links between variables

An experiment is a carefully controlled method of investigation used to establish a cause-and-effect relationship.

• • Hypothesis – testable, tentative statement describing the relationship between two or more variables

  • Independent Variable – factor manipulated by the experimenter

  • Dependent Variable – factor measured by the experimenter

• An operational definition is a precise description of how the variable in a study will be manipulated and measured.

• A control group consists of similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group, which consists of subjects that do receive special treatment in regards to the independent variable.

• Confounding Variables – when two variables are linked together in a way that it is difficult to sort out their specific effects

• Random selection gathers participants in a way that all members of population have equal chance of being chosen.

• Random assignment of subjects ensures that participants have equal chance to be assigned to any group or condition of the study.

Experiments are not free of flaws, thus researchers look for ways to ensure their results are based in fact.

• • Replication

  • Sampling Bias: exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn

  • Experimenter Bias: when a researcher’s expectations influence the obtained data

  • Placebo Effect: subjects feel change despite receiving empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment

To prevent any preconceived notions on  the part of the experimenter or the subject, many researchers conduct double-blind studies. Double-blind procedure is a research strategy in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know which subjects are in the control or experimental groups. 

Advantages:

• • Determine cause-and-effect relationship

  • Control variables

  • Clear & precise results

Disadvantages:

• • Often artificial

  • Can be biased

  • Limited by code of ethics

  • Can be blind to other factors

• A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual subject; best suited for research on a phenomena, using multiple case studies to prove a hypothesis. 

• A survey is a questionnaire or interview that gathers information about specific aspects of a participants beliefs, attitudes, behavior, or background. Although simple, subjects taken surveys are often dishonest, either through wishful thinking or lapses in memory.

  • Social desirability bias – answering the way society wants you to

  • Response set – not paying attention to the questions, continually answering the same way

  • Halo effect – thinking about the big picture rather than the specific details

  • Wording effects - how questions are phrased can alter the way people respond

• Naturalistic observation is when an experimenter carefully monitors subjects without direct intervention.

Advantages:

• • Provides answers experiments cannot

  • Less subject to bias due to after-the-fact analysis

Disadvantages:

• • No control over variables or environment

  • Conclusive results are unlikely

Researchers look at statistics to organize, summarize, and interpret data. 

• Types of Statistics:

  • Descriptive: used to organize and summarize data 🡪 What is the data? What does the data say?

  • Inferential: used to interpret data and draw conclusions 🡪 What does the data mean? Could the results be due to chance?

Researchers want to know what a typical score is, and find out using three measures of central tendency:

• • Mean: the average of a scores distribution

  • Median: the score that falls in the center of the distribution of scores

  • Mode: the most common score

Variability refers to how much the scores in a data set vary from each other. Variability is measured by standard deviation, an index of the amount of variability in a set of data. 

• • Low standard deviation = low variability, consistent scores

  • High standard deviation = high variability, random scores

A correlation exists when two variables are related to each other. The correlational coefficient is a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables. When measured, the closer the number is to +1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship.

• A positive correlation indicates that two variables co-vary in the same direction (ex. If a student has a low GPA when they graduate high school, they will have a low GPA when they graduate college). 

• A negative correlation indicates two variables co-vary in the opposite direction (ex. The more a student is absent from class, the lower their exam grades will be). 

Correlation does not equal causation! Two variables can be highly correlated, but that doesn’t mean they are related (ex. There is a substantial positive correlation between a child’s foot size and the size of their vocabulary. This does not mean that increases in foot size will cause increases in vocabulary size).

If a researcher says the results are statistically significant, it means the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low. It does not mean the results are important, it just means that they are an accurate representation of the experiment.

In order to combat controversy, the American Psychological Association (APA) established rules for ethical research practice:

• • All participation must be voluntary and participants can leave the study at any time

  • Participants should not be exposed to harmful or dangerous procedures

  • Deception must be disclosed as soon as possible (debriefing)

  • Right to privacy must never be violated

  • All animals are entitled to decent living conditions  and all experiments must be justifiable

  • Institution approval needed for all research