Works Cited

Andre, Claire, and Manuel Velasquez. "A Healthy Bottom Line: Profits or People?" Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University. Last modified November 16, 2015. Accessed December 16, 2021. https://www.scu.edu/ethics/focus-areas/bioethics/resources/a-healthy-bottom-line-profits-or-people/.


Benjamins, Maureen R., Abigail Silva, and Nazia S. Saiyed. "Comparison of All-Cause Mortality Rates and Inequities between Black and White Populations across the 30 Most Populous US Cities." Jama Network Open 4, no. 1 (January 2021).


Blessed Pope Paul VI. "Octogesima Adveniens: A Call to Action." In United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Last modified May 14, 1971. Accessed December 6, 2021. https://www.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/en/apost_letters/documents/hf_p-vi_apl_19710514_octogesima-adveniens.html.


Borst, Charlotte G. "Black Women, Indigent Medical Care, and Academic Medical Politics, 1950-1965: The Case of Birmingham, Alabama." Journal of Southern History 87, no. 3 (August 2021): 467+. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A676649888/UHIC?u=mlin_s_font&sid=bookmark-UHIC&xid=500fabe8.


Bridges, Khiara M. "Implicit Bias and Racial Disparities in Health Care." American Bar Association Human Rights Magazine, 2018. Accessed December 16, 2021. https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human_rights_magazine_home/the-state-of-healthcare-in-the-united-states/racial-disparities-in-health-care/.


Byrd, W. M., and L. A. Clayton. "Race, medicine, and health care in the United States: a historical survey." Journal of the National Medical Association 93 (March 2001). Accessed October 11, 2021. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2593958/?page=1.


Evans, Michele K., Lisa Rosenbaum, Debra Malina, Stephen Morrissey, and Eric Rubin. "Diagnosing and Treating Systemic Racism." The New England Journal of Medicine 383, no. 3 (July 16, 2020): 274-76. Accessed October 12, 2021. https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMe2021693.


Fauci, Cara A. "Racism and Health Care in America: Legal Responses to Racial Disparities in the Allocation of Kidneys." Boston College Third World Law Journal 21, no. 1 (2001). Accessed October 12, 2021. https://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/twlj/vol21/iss1/3/.


Fitzgerald, Colin. "African American Slave Medicine of the 19th Century." Bridgewater State University: The Undergrad Review 12 (2016): 44-50. Accessed October 12, 2021. https://vc.bridgew.edu/undergrad_rev/vol12/iss1/10/.


Frakt, Austin. "Bad Medicine: The Harm That Comes From Racism." The New York Times (NY), January 13, 2020. Accessed November 18, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/13/upshot/bad-medicine-the-harm-that-comes-from-racism.html.


Ghoshal, Malini, Hannah Shapiro, and Knox Todd. "Chronic Noncancer Pain Management and Systemic Racism: Time to Move toward Equal Care Standards." Journal of Pain Research 13 (November 30, 2020): 2825+. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A646109732/HWRC?u=mlin_s_font&sid=bookmark-HWRC&xid=a92f79cc.


"Health, United States, 2015, with Special Feature on Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities." National Center for Health Statistics 2016, no. 1232 (May 2016). Accessed October 18, 2021. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/hus15.pdf.


Holt, Matthew. "Why Is Fixing American Health Care So Difficult?" ABC News. Last modified October 16, 2006. https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/PrescriptionForChange/story?id=2564042&page=1.


Institute of Medicine. Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2003. Accessed December 16, 2021. https://doi.org/10.17226/12875.


Johnson-Mann, Crystal, Monique Hassan, and Shaneeta Johnson. "COVID-19 Pandemic Highlights Racial Health Inequities." The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 8, no. 8 (August 2020). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32659216/.


Kenny, Stephen C. "Slavery, Health and Medicine." Atlantic History. Last modified January 15, 2015. Accessed November 18, 2021. https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0256.xml.


Kullar, Ravina, Jasmine R. Marcelin, Talia H. Swartz, Damani A. Piggott, Raul Macias Gil, Trini A. Mathew, and Tina Tan. "Racial Disparity of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in African American Communities." The Journal of Infectious Diseases 222, no. 6 (September 2020). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7337812/.


Lagasse, Jeff. "Ending racism in healthcare often begins with medical education - and is the target of a new national project." Healthcare Finance. Last modified April 30, 2021. Accessed January 31, 2022. https://www.healthcarefinancenews.com/news/ending-racism-healthcare-often-begins-medical-education-and-target-new-national-project.


Library of Congress. "Text - H.R.666 - 117th Congress (2021-2022): Anti-Racism in Public Health Act of 2021." Congress.gov | Library of Congress. Last modified February 1, 2021. https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/666/text.


Miller, David. "Justice." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Summer 2017. Accessed January 20, 2022. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice/.


National Medical Association. "History of the National Medical Association." Accessed February 20, 2022. https://www.nmanet.org/page/History.


Noonan, Allan S., Hector Eduardo Velasco-Mondragón, and Fernando A. Wagner. "Improving the Health of African Americans in the USA: An Overdue Opportunity for Social Justice." Public Health Review 37, no. 12 (October 3, 2016). Accessed February 21, 2022. https://publichlthreviews.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40985-016-0025-4#citeas.


Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace. "THE CHURCH AND RACISM: TOWARD a MORE FRATERNAL SOCIETY." In United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Last modified September 7, 2001. Accessed December 6, 2021. https://www.humandevelopment.va/content/dam/sviluppoumano/pubblicazioni-documenti/archivio/diritti-umani/The%20Church%20against%20Racism%202001-1988.pdf.


Pressley House. "Pressley, Warren, Lee Reintroduce Bold Legislation to Confront Structural Racism As a Public Health Crisis." Representative Ayanna Pressley. Last modified March 7, 2021. https://pressley.house.gov/media/press-releases/pressley-warren-lee-reintroduce-bold-legislation-confront-structural-racism.


Probasco, Jim. "The Insurance Industry Confronts Its Own Racism." Investiopedia. Last modified September 1, 2020. Accessed December 16, 2021. https://www.investopedia.com/race-and-insurance-5075141.


Savitt, Todd L. "ENTERING a WHITE PROFESSION: BLACK PHYSICIANS in THE NEW SOUTH, 1880-1920." Bulletin of the History of Medicine 61, no. 4 (1987): 507-40. http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.bpl.org/stable/44442130.


Sim, Wilson, Wen Hui Lim, Cheng Han Ng, Yip Han Chin, Clyve Yu leon Yaow, Clare Wei zhen Cheong, Chin Meng Khoo, Dujeepa D. Samarasekera, M. Kamala Devi, and Choon Seng Chong. "The Perspectives of Health Professionals and Patients on Racism in Healthcare: A Qualitative Systematic Review." PLoS ONE 16, no. 8 (August 31, 2021): e0255936. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A673834707/OVIC?u=mlin_s_font&sid=bookmark-OVIC&xid=c2beb9ee.


Smith, Jennifer M. "The Color of Pain: Blacks and the U.S. Health Care System--Can the Affordable Care Act Help to Heal a History of Injustice? Part I." Scholarly Commons at Florida A&M University College of Law, 2015. Accessed November 18, 2021. https://commons.law.famu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1308&context=faculty-research.


Strand, Natalie H., Edward R. Mariano, Johnathan H. Goree, Samer Narouze, Tina L. Doshi, John A. Freeman, and Amy C.s. Pearson. "Racism in Pain Medicine: We Can and Should Do More." Mayo Clinic Proceedings 96, no. 6 (June 2021): 1394+. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A667487677/GPS?u=mlin_s_font&sid=bookmark-GPS&xid=adf37655.


Taylor, Jamila. "Racism, Inequality, and Health Care for African Americans." The Century Foundation. Last modified December 19, 2019. Accessed December 16, 2021. https://tcf.org/content/report/racism-inequality-health-care-african-americans/.


Thomas, Stephen B., and Erica Casper. "The Burdens of Race and History on Black People's Health 400 Years After Jamestown." American Journal of Public Health, October 2019. Accessed October 11, 2021. https://ajph.aphapublications.org/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.2105%2FAJPH.2019.305290.


USCCB. "The Corporal Works of Mercy." United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Last modified 2022. https://www.usccb.org/beliefs-and-teachings/how-we-teach/new-evangelization/jubilee-of-mercy/the-corporal-works-of-mercy.


USCCB. "The Spiritual Works of Mercy." United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Last modified 2022. https://www.usccb.org/beliefs-and-teachings/how-we-teach/new-evangelization/jubilee-of-mercy/the-spiritual-works-of-mercy.


United States Catholic Bishops. "A Framework for Comprehensive Healthcare Reform." In United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Last modified June 18, 1993. Accessed December 7, 2021. https://www.usccb.org/issues-and-action/human-life-and-dignity/health-care/upload/health-care-comprehensive-care.pdf.


United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. "Seven Themes of Catholic Social Teaching." USCCB Publications 5, no. 315 (2005). https://www.usccb.org/beliefs-and-teachings/what-we-believe/catholic-social-teaching/seven-themes-of-catholic-social-teaching.


U.S. Catholic Bishops. "Brothers and Sisters to Us." In United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Last modified November 15, 1979. Accessed December 7, 2021. https://www.usccb.org/committees/african-american-affairs/brothers-and-sisters-us.


Williams, David R., Ph.D, M.D., and Toni D. Rucker, Ph.D. "Understanding and Addressing Racial Disparities in Health Care." Health Care Financing Review 21, no. 4 (Summer 2000). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4194634/.


Zieff, Gabriel, Zachary Kerr, Justin Moore, and Lee Stoner. "Universal Healthcare in the United States of America: A Healthy Debate." Medicina (Kaunas) 56 (11), no. 580 (October 30, 2020). Accessed January 20, 2022. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7692272/.