Lesson 1.03: Argument Elements

In this lesson, we’ll go beyond conclusions and take a closer look at the other elements that can make up arguments. You’ll learn how to identify these elements—like examples, evidence, counter-assertions, counter-arguments, hypothetical reasoning and analogies—and understand the role each one plays in an argument. By the end of this lesson, you’ll be able to break down arguments into their parts and explain how those parts work together to support a conclusion.

Key Terms

reasons - The part of the argument that expresses why they should accept the conclusion
examples - is a specific instance which makes reasoning clearer by illustrating it.
evidence - consists of facts or data which support a reason
counter-assertion - a simple claim which provides an alternative opinion which an author introduces in order to explain why it is wrong
counter argument - an alternative opinion which an author introduces in order to explain why it is wrong consisting of a claim and supported by reasoning
hypothetical reasoning - an imagined or suggested situation and outcome that could or could not happen.
analogy - a comparison of an unfamiliar concept with something more familiar and acceptable.

Evidence and examples

Reasoning becomes stronger when it’s supported by evidence or examples. However, authors and speakers don’t always make it clear which one they’re using—especially in everyday conversation or speeches. Statistics and the results of surveys are most likely to be used as evidence, whereas several items introduced by 'such as' or a similar expression are probably examples.

Sometimes, it can be tricky to tell whether a piece of information is being used as evidence to support a reason, or as a reason to support an intermediate conclusion. Learning to spot the difference is a key part of becoming a strong critical thinker.

Practice

Question 1

The following Is an extract from an argument in favour of war.

Wars bring numerous economic advantages to the countries which participate. In 1944, at the height of World War II, expenditure on the war added 60-70 per cent to the Gross Domestic Product of the United States. Enrolment into the armed services solves issues of unemployment, while factories no longer stand doing nothing when supplies of tanks, planes, guns and ammunition are urgently needed. The work of reconstruction employs many people after the war.

Identify the function of the following element in this paragraph:

'ln 1944, at the height of World War II, expenditure on the war added 60-70 per cent to the Gross Domestic Product of the United States.'

Question 2

The following is an extract from an argument in favour of the introduction of an international language.

The only reason why some people might not want to learn this international language is that It will be of limited use to them at first, because very few people will understand it. These objectors are persuaded by their own comfort and ease rather than long-term advantages to everyone. Additionally, the small number of users is a very feeble objection, because all new methods of communication - such as telephones, cars and the internet - are of little use until enough people have adopted them, but once some brave people have made the commitment they become necessary parts of everyday life.

Identify the function of the following element in this paragraph:

‘telephones, cars and the internet.’

Question 3

The following paragraph is an extract from an argument in favour of developing new methods of punishment, other than sending criminals to prison.

Depriving criminals of their freedom fails to repay victims or society. Instead of adding an extra burden to public spending, as they do under the current system, criminals should be made to compensate society for the harm they have done. They could do the types of socially valuable work which people cannot afford to pay for, such as collecting litter or sweeping the streets. If they had to wear a distinctive uniform (such as a bright pink jacket with the word ‘offender’ written on it in large letters) while undertaking this community work, they would be exposed to contempt and rude comments from members of the public who saw them, which in many instances might help them to understand the consequences of their crimes and persuade them to obey the law in future.

Identify an example in this paragraph, and state what it is an example of.

Counter assertions and counterarguments

Sometimes in arguments, writers or speakers bring up opposing views—these are called counters. They’re “counter” in two ways:

They show a different opinion from the main argument.
They’re brought up so the author can respond to or challenge them.

Writers often use counters at the beginning of an argument to set the stage. In these cases, the whole argument is a response to that counter. Other times, counters appear in the middle of the reasoning to deal with possible objections. But this can be risky—if the counter isn’t clearly answered, it might actually make the author’s argument weaker.

Practice

Here are some short arguments. Identify the if there is a counter-assertion or a counter-argument element in each argument.

Question 1

A common point made against this argument is that there are some who do not disclose their identity and do good in secret, but even these unknown deeds are inspired by selfishness. The pay off in these instances is not the respect of other people, but the internal good feelings gained from the knowledge of having been kind.

Question 2

The college car park is overcrowded. Some students have suggested that we should extend the car park, because not being able to park on site causes serious inconvenience to students and staff. However, no land is available for that purpose. So we need to introduce a system of parking permits.

Question 3

The following is an extract from an argument in favour of the introduction of an international language.

The only reason why some people might not want to learn this international language is that it will be of limited use to them at first, because very few people will understand it. These objectors are persuaded by their own comfort and ease rather than long-term advantages to everyone. Additionally, the small number of users is a very feeble objection, because all new methods of communication - such as telephones, cars and the internet - are of little use until enough people have adopted them, but once some brave people have made the commitment they become necessary parts of everyday life.

Identify a counterargument in this paragraph.

Question 4

The following is the final paragraph of an argument. The final sentence is the main conclusion of the whole argument.

Admittedly, some changes do ultimately turn out to have been for the better, but the problem is that we cannot tell beforehand which ones they will be. It is always more likely that any particular proposal will lead to catastrophe than that it will result in an improvement. So the best practice is to be safe, by resisting all change.

Identify the function of the following element:

‘Admittedly, some changes do ultimately turn out to have been for the better.'

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