Muslim-Chinese Bronzes
Expansion of muslim communities in china
background
During the 7th century, the religion of Islam was expanding to the west from the Arabian Peninsula. Islamic traders and missionaries were beginning to enter the silk roads leading to China during the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE). During the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), Muslim trading networks were in reach of coastal China, where Muslim communties were located in the south (Gunn,43-44,2011). Trading goods included textiles, bronzes, texts, and other trading objects that emphasized Chinese and Muslim culture. Inscriptions, designs, textures, and materials were finely detailed for trade. It took a while to adjust to and incorporate Chinese customs. Numerous mosques were built among Buddhist and Hindu temples. During the Song dynasty, Muslims dominated the long-distance trade with China. By the Ming period (1368-1644), many Chinese-Muslims had risen socio-economically and some occupied high positions in government (Gunn,46,2011). Chinese-Muslim culture flourished during this time when emperors favored their art and literature. Muslims of China spoke and wrote Chinese but were able to follow their Islamic religious traditions in their homes and mosques. However, by nineteenth century much of their art was destroyed during the formidable Muslim rebellions (1855-1873 and 1861-1877). Despite this, some items related to their way of life and in the possession of Muslim families survived these rebellions.
Berthold Laufer: Chinese-Muslim Bronzes Collection From China
Background
During the T.B. Blackstone Expedition and the Jacob H. Schiff Expedition in the early twentieth century, Laufer came across many Chinese-Muslim objects and collected items that represented the life and culture of Muslim people. Occasionally, Laufer visited mosques in Beijing, Taiyuan, Tai’an, Guangzhou, and other cities because the rubbings of inscribed stones at these mosques illustrated their history. Laufer was delighted to learn more about the literature, religion and traditions of the Chinese Muslim community. He collected a variety of Islamic books in Arabic, Chinese, and Chinese-Arabic to bring to the Newberry Library in Chicago. Laufer also collected rosaries, prayer caps embroidered in gold and silver thread with Arabic aphorisms, and bronze vessels, some with Arabic calligraphy. Laufer was inspired to showcase the few artifacts that were left to exhibit Muslim religion, tradition, and art in China.
All objects described were obtained by Laufer at Sianfu, China, during the Blackstone Expedition on behalf of the Field Museum in Chicago.
Examples include the following:
figure 1A
Two bronze censors (Catalog No. 117602) were from Xi’an in 1908, Shensi Province, from Mr. Su, a Muslim antique dealer of the city. Laufer claims, “The two tripod censors are similar in shape, and manufactured in the imperial foundry of Peking [Beijing] in the years 1430 and 1431.” (Laufer, 136,1934). One of the censors has two sides that are coated with a lustrous brown polish. This censor features three panels filled with Arabic writings. One of Laufer’s acquaintances, Professor Martin Sprengling, was able to translate the inscriptions: “The most excellent of confessional innovations (is): There is no god whoever beside Allāh; Muhammed is the apostle of God.”
Figure 1b
Same description as FIGURE 1A.
figure 3
Two pairs of dragons have five claws each depicted on the censer (Catalog No. 117601). There are three smaller dragons with four claws each on the bottom of the bowl. There is also a pair of dragons on the handles of the bowl. In total, there are eleven dragons on the vessel. Laufer noted that the symbol of a dragon was the coat of arms of the Ming family. A flaming jewel or pearl object is between the beards of two dragons and lays on a cloud pattern held between their claws. Laufer acknowledged that the cloud and thunder dragon symbolizes fertilizing showers.
figure 4
An inscription on the vessel states: “Made in the fifth year of the period Süan-te (A.D. 1430) of the great Ming dynasty (1368-1643) by his majesty’s servant Wu Pang-tso, who held office in the Board of Public Works with the title of superintendent or director (kien-tu).”
Additional writing was found in the seal on the dragon censor:
“Made in the sixth year of the period Süan-te (A.D. 1431) of the great Ming dynasty (1368-1643) under the supervision of his majesty’s servant Wu Pang-tso, president of the Board of Public Works (Kung pu shang shu).”
figure 5
This plate (Catalog No. 117610) was created during the Ming period (1368-1643) and was from a wealthy Muslim family of Xi’an. The large plate is made out of seven hammered brass pieces. “The margin is engraved with an interlaced band filled with chrysanthemums and cloud patterns. The latter is enfolded in a crescent and banded by a medallion which contains Arabic writing.” (Laufer, 140,1934) Intriguingly, the middle of the plate has an interlaced band positioned as an eight-pointed star and laid around a round band. Nine spaces are present, and five contain Arabic writing; four small ones at the corner have a whorl-like pattern that is in a Muslim style. On the outside of the plate is a detailed band of florals. Evidently, they were from textiles and are likely an adaptation of Chinese decorative motifs to Muslim customs. (Laufer, 140,1934)
figure 6
This copper plate (Catalog No. 117609) was owned by the same wealthy Muslim family that owned the brass plate previously discussed, and the plate was made by the same artisan as the brass plate [FIGURE 5]. The physical appearance of the copper plate is similar to that of the previous plate. A star shape design with similar writing was included in the copper plate. Six dragons with five claws each are printed on the edges, with alternating heads facing forwards and backwards. “ The other side of the center there is a unicorn monster with a trunk of an elephant, that may come from the makara of India (chi srin of the Tibetans)” (Laufer, 140, 1934). It was unknown how the motive came to be on the plate. Laufer had seen it before alongside a monster with a conch-shell, but it was only in Tibetan Buddhist art. Professor Martin Spengling was able to give more information on the inscriptions of the two plates.
figure 7
This cover to a brass box (Catalog No. 117605) was collected at Xi’an in 1908 by Laufer and is most likely from the Ming dynasty (1368-1643). According to Professor Sprengling, the calligraphy states four names, “Muhammed, Mahmūd, Hāmid, and Ahmed”. The different versions of names may derive from the prophet Muhammed. The top of the cover is the only part that is decorated with Arabic calligraphy in the middle. A relief is laid around in a circle and the outer zone is a band of arabesques. The pattern is duplicated four times, and the four groups are divided by a flower with a sizable outspread of petals. The artist included a bird’s head being merged with the spirals.
figure 8
These three flower-vases (Catalog Nos. 120982, 117603, 117604) are grouped together and were constructed during the later Ming period (1368-1643). All of the vases have a pair of elaborate loop handles, and two are ornamented with a carved band of floral designs. The first and third vases have religious exclamations often used in the Islamic world. Professor Sprengling translated it as, “subhān Allāh, “glory to God.” and wal-hamdu lillāh, “and praise to God” (Laufer, 142,1934).
figure 11
An iron cast figure portrays a nude man from Central Asia, kneeling on a round base. On the base, there are inscriptions. Laufer figured that the writings indicate that the figure was put in a Buddhist temple in front of a statue of the Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha. It was reproduced by an ironworker, Ch‘en Ying-kū in 1618 B.C.E ( 46th year of the Wan-li period). The characteristics of the iron figure led Laufer to believe that it was a Chinese-Muslim man. It was made by an iron-creator, Ch’en Ying-kü in A.D 1618 (Laufer,145,1934).
figure 12
A Ming figure (Catalog No. 117697) is made out of bronze, and is in a dancing movement. He wears a hood, and at the end of it is shaped like a lion’s head. He wears earrings, a necklace, and a belt. The man is dressed in a long, adorned coat with long sleeves. A small sword and bowl are hanging from his girdle on the side. The figure seems to be supported by a stool or tray. It is unknown from whom or when Laufer was able to collect it. Due to the figure’s characters, Laufer believed it represented a Muslim-Chinese individual.
figure 13
The figure (Catalog No. 120179) is a Muslim man directing the lion on which the Bodhisattva Avalokitecvara is sitting. “The figure is guiding a lion on which the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara is seated..” (Laufer, 145, ).It’s a well-detailed and familiar invention on bronze material. Lions were often transported and gifted to the Chinese court by monarchs and elites of Persia and Central Asia. It is a very unique artifact that may have been part of a celebration, ceremony, or ritual.
figure 14
Lastly, there are three small clay figurines that represent Muslims (Catalog Nos. 119946, 119947, 119943). Their purpose is to hold candles with their unique shapes. They are hollow and have vertical gaps running through their heads, allowing the candlestick to be inserted into them easily. The formation process began with them being molds and many replicas have been made. Two of the Muslim figures play an instrument, the lute or p‘i-p‘a, deriving from Central-Asiatic culture. The third Muslim figurine is posing as a bodhisattva with a naked and projected stomach. He is demonstrating a petting movement with his right hand. Additionally, he wears a cone-shaped hat, an extensive nose, and a cute mustache.
Note:
All of the objects within this part of Laufer’s collection were from the Ming period (1368-1643). Additionally, they were all acquired by him at Xi’an between 1908 and 1909. Some were gifted, loaned, or purchased during his stay in China. Laufer’s interest in Muslim Chinese culture grew because of his fascination with their literature, history, and art. It was rare for Muslim artifacts to survive, so Laufer was inspired to collect a number of examples.