03. Observational Learning

STUDY DESIGN DOT POINT:

social-cognitive approaches to learning, as illustrated by observational learning as a process involving attention, retention, reproduction, motivation and reinforcement

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

In observational learning we acquire new behaviours while not personally experiencing them. We learn by watching the behaviours of the people around us, be them friends, parents, teachers or fictional characters.

We might learn how to dance, perform a manoeuvre on a skateboard, socially acceptable behaviour or even learn a fear simply by watching the behavioural patterns of others.

The person being observed is known as a model. A live model is a real-life person and a symbolic model is a character displaying behaviour in a movie or book.

Observational learning is often called “modelling”

Albert Bandura studied this type of learning extensively and led him to develop the “social learning theory” to explain modelling of behaviour as a form of social learning. This theory emphasises the importance of the environment or “social context” in which the learning occurs and suggests we are more likely to model behaviour that produces responses that are desirable and likely to be rewarded

Bandura acknowledged that both classical and operant conditioning can also be modelled

During “Vicarious Conditioning” the individual watches a model’s behaviour being either reinforced of punished and behaves accordingly

“Vicarious reinforcement” increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way
- If you see someone being able to leave class early for answering a lot of questions, you are likely to try to do the same to get the same reinforcer
- “Vicarious punishment” is the same, but involves a decrease in the likelihood of modelling the behaviour.
- If you see a student getting a detention for calling out in class, you are not likely to call out yourself.
- The person observing the behaviour must not only see the behaviour, but must also process it and store it in their memory.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING PROCESS

According to Bandura, observational learning follows a sequence of events:

Attention - Retention - Reproduction - Motivation - Reinforcement

o ATTENTION

The learner must pay attention to the model
Influenced by the situation, the importance of the behaviour, level of interest and characterises of the model (like attractiveness)
We are more likely to pay attention to people who are perceived positively and liked, have similarities to the observer, is familiar or known to the observer and a behaviour the observer believes they are capable of modelling

o RETENTION

The observer must remember what they have seen
The behaviour is often not needed to be replicated until well after the event so it must be retained.

o REPRODUCTION

The behaviour must be able to be physically performed by the observer
We would not be able to imitate a surfer’s behaviour if we were paralysed.
The behaviour may not be reproduced to the same level of skill

o MOTIVATION

The observer must be motivated to imitate the behaviour
The usefulness or reinforcement of the behaviour will affect motivation

o REINFORCEMENT

The Behaviour is associated with either a reinforcement or a punishment
“External Reinforcement” is learning by consequences such as praise or payment. Payment will improve your willingness to model behaviour
“Vicarious reinforcement” is observing someone else being rewarded for the behaviour. Seeing your sibling work hard for good results may make you model that hard work
“Self-reinforcement” is being reinforced by meeting personal standards such as pride, sense of achievement or fulfilment. Avoiding working in a boring job may motivate you to model good study habits.

Bandura's Experiment

During the 1960s, Albert Bandura conducted a series of experiments on observational learning, collectively known as the Bobo doll experiments.

Two of the experiments are described below:

Bandura used sample of 72 children age d between three and six years old. Participants were paired according to their observable behaviour and level of aggression shown in usual interactions with their peers. Particpants were accordingly placed into one of three groups as seen in the image beside this text. Participants then viewed their model interacting with the bobo doll in an agressive manner, a non-agressive manner, or in the case of the control group, there was no model at all.

• Children who observed the aggressive model made far more imitative aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups.
• There was more partial and non-imitative aggression among those children who had observed aggressive behavior, although the difference for non-imitative aggression was small.
• The girls in the aggressive model condition also showed more physical aggressive responses if the model was male, but more verbal aggressive responses if the model was female. However, the exception to this general pattern was the observation of how often they punched Bobo, and in this case the effects of gender were reversed.
• Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex models than girls. The evidence for girls imitating same-sex models is not strong.
• Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls. There was little difference in the verbal aggression between boys and girls.

EXAM QUESTION

EXAM ANSWER

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.3

1. **(2 marks)** What is observational learning, and how does it differ from classical and operant conditioning?

2. **(2 marks)** Describe the Bobo doll experiment conducted by Albert Bandura and its significance in the study of observational learning.

3. **(4 marks)** Outline and explain the four key processes of observational learning as identified by Albert Bandura.

4. **(2 marks)** Explain the role of attention in observational learning and discuss a factor that might enhance or impair this process.

5. **(2 marks)** What is meant by retention in the context of observational learning, and how can this process be facilitated?

6. **(2 marks)** Explain the process of reproduction in observational learning. Provide an example to illustrate this process.

7. **(2 marks)** Explain the role of motivation in observational learning. How does it influence whether an observed behavior is imitated?

8. **(4 marks)** Explain how reinforcement and punishment in the context of operant conditioning can affect observational learning. Include examples to support your explanation.

9. **(4 marks)** Scenario Question: A high school student, Alex, observes their older sibling, Jordan, successfully negotiating with their parents for a later curfew by presenting a well-reasoned argument that included offering to do the dishes that night. Alex decides to attempt the same strategy when negotiating for more screen time.

a. Analyze this scenario using the four key processes of observational learning.

b. Consider how principles of operant conditioning could further explain the reinforcement of Alex's behaviour, assuming Alex is successful.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.3 ANSWERS

1. What is observational learning, and how does it differ from classical and operant conditioning? (2 marks)

Observational learning, also known as social learning, occurs when an individual learns by watching the behaviours of others and the outcomes of those behaviours. Unlike classical conditioning, which involves learning to associate two stimuli, and operant conditioning, which is about learning from the consequences of behaviour, observational learning does not require the learner to perform any behaviour or experience any consequence directly. **(1 mark for explaining observational learning; 1 mark for contrasting with classical and operant conditioning)**

2. Describe the Bobo doll experiment conducted by Albert Bandura and its significance in the study of observational learning. (2 marks)

Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment involved children observing adults behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll, either in person or through a film. The children were then left in a room with the same doll, where many of them imitated the aggressive behaviour they had observed. This experiment demonstrated that children could learn social behaviours through observation alone, without direct reinforcement, highlighting the importance of modelling in learning. **(1 mark for describing the experiment; 1 marks for explaining its significance)**

3. Outline the four key processes of observational learning as identified by Albert Bandura. (3 marks)

The four key processes of observational learning are attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Attention involves focusing on the behaviour being modelled; retention is the ability to remember the observed behaviour; reproduction is the ability to replicate the behaviour; and motivation determines whether the observed behaviour is actually performed. **(1 mark for each correct process identified and briefly explained)**

4. Explain the role of attention in observational learning and discuss a factor that might enhance or impair this process. (2 marks)

Attention in observational learning is crucial as it involves the observer focusing on the model's behavior. Factors that can enhance attention include the model's distinctiveness, the complexity of the behavior, and the observer's interest in the task. Conversely, distractions or lack of interest in the model can impair the attention process. **(1 mark for explaining the role of attention; 1 mark for discussing factors affecting attention)**

5. What is meant by retention in the context of observational learning, and how can this process be facilitated? (2 marks)

Retention refers to the observer's ability to remember the observed behaviour over time. This process can be facilitated by mental rehearsal of the behaviour, encoding the behaviour into memory using verbal or visual symbols, and the observer's cognitive capabilities. **(1 mark for defining retention; 1 marks for explaining how it can be facilitated)**

6. Explain the process of reproduction in observational learning. Provide an example to illustrate this process. (2 marks)

Reproduction is the ability of the observer to perform the observed behaviour. This requires the observer to have the physical capabilities and the opportunity to reproduce the action. For example, a child may observe their parent baking a cake (attention), remember the process (retention) and later successfully bakes a cake themselves (reproduction). **(1 marks for describing reproduction; 1 marks for providing an example)**

7. Explain the role of motivation in observational learning. How does it influence whether an observed behaviour is imitated? (2 marks)

Motivation determines whether the observed behaviour is imitated. Observers are more likely to reproduce observed behaviours if they expect that doing so will result in positive outcomes or rewards, either external (such as praise) or internal (such as satisfaction). Lack of motivation, due to anticipation of negative consequences or lack of rewards, can prevent the imitation of observed behaviours. **(1 mark for explaining the role of motivation; 1 marks for detailing its influence on imitation)**

8. Explain how reinforcement and punishment in the context of operant conditioning can affect observational learning. Include examples to support your explanation. (4 marks)

In observational learning, the observer's likelihood of imitating a behaviour can be affected by the reinforcement or punishment they see the model receiving. If an observed behaviour is rewarded (reinforcement), the observer is more likely to imitate it. Conversely, if the behavior is punished, the observer may avoid it. For example, if a child sees a sibling being rewarded with extra playtime for cleaning up toys, they may imitate this behavior, hoping for the same reward. **(2 marks for explaining the effect of reinforcement and punishment; 1 marks for providing an example of punishment; 1 mark for providing an example of reinforcement)**

### 9. Scenario Question: (5 marks)

a. Alex paid attention to Jordan's negotiation strategy (attention) and remembered the steps Jordan took (retention). Alex had the ability to use the same strategy as Jordan (reproduction) and Alex, having witnessed the reward that Jordan received was motivated to try the same strategy (motivation). 1 mark for identifying the four components, 1 mark for accurately identifying where the components exist in the scenario.

b) If Alex is successful, principles of operant conditioning (receiving more screen time as a reward) it reinforce Alex's behaviour, making it more likely to be repeated in the future. 1 mark for identifying a possible outcome involving reinforcement or punishment. 1 mark for accurately identifying the effect that would have on future behaviour (increased likelihood due to reinforcement).

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