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STUDY DESIGN DOT POINT:
behaviourist approaches to learning, as illustrated by classical conditioning as a three-phase process (before conditioning, during conditioning and after conditioning) that results in the involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response, and operant conditioning as a three-phase process (antecedent, behaviour and consequence) involving reinforcement (positive and negative) and punishment (positive and negative)
WHAT IS LEARNING?
Try to think about something that you haven't learned. It's a pretty difficult task, because as humans, the vast majority of our behaviours are learned through experience. An infant can perform very basic behaviours such as suckling which enables a child to feed, but other than that, some other simple reflexes and our autonomic functioning, we are mostly unable to interact with our environment due to our lack of experience
An innate behaviour is something we are born being able to do. They tend to be very predictable, are not modified by the individual and are usually founded in evolution, insofar as it helps the organism to survive. Many animals are born with more complex innate behaviours than humans: Spiders can spin webs, birds can build nests and caterpillars can make a cocoon, all without needing to be taught.
Learning is said to be "a relatively permanent change in behaviour as the result of experience". In order for something to be learned, we must be exposed to it, pay attention to it and store it for later use/recollection. This field of Psychology was of particular interest to Behaviourists, who focussed on studying observable behaviour alone as mental processes are too complex, subjective and difficult to research.
The models of human learning that we will investigate in this unit are:
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Observational Learning
Learning through relationships with people and country
TIP:
The words conditioning and learning are interchangable, so when we see terms like operant conditioning and classical conditioning, it basciall means operant learning and classical learning.
WHAT IS A BEHAVOURISTS APPROACH TO LEARNING?
A behaviorist approach to learning focuses on how external stimuli shape observable behaviors through conditioning. It disregards internal mental processes and instead emphasizes that learning occurs through direct interactions with the environment. Two key types of conditioning define this approach:
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) – Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to produce an unconditioned response (UCR). Over time, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), triggering a conditioned response (CR). Example: A cat learning to associate the sound of a food container opening (CS) with receiving food (UCS), leading to salivation (CR).
Operant Conditioning (Skinner) – Learning is shaped by consequences. Behaviors are reinforced (increasing their likelihood) or punished (decreasing their likelihood). This includes:
Positive reinforcement (adding a reward to encourage behavior)
Negative reinforcement (removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage behavior)
Positive punishment (adding an unpleasant stimulus to discourage behavior)
Negative punishment (removing a desirable stimulus to discourage behavior)
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning exclusively involves creating an association between a stimulus and an involuntary behaviour. As we are dealing with involuntary behaviours the learner is said to be passive in this process. By that we mean that the learning will inadvertently acquire the behaviour through being exposed to a series of events that results in an association between a stimulus and an involuntary behaviour.
This was exemplified by Ivan Pavlov, who in 1902, discovered that he was able to teach dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell. This is because he would ring a bell before giving the dogs food and eventually the dogs learned that the food precedes the bell and as a result they would start to salivate when they heard a bell.
In this scenario, the dog didn't have to learn to salivate at the site of food as it is a reflexive autonomic response. As a result the language of classical conditioning refers to:
The food as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS); and
The salivation in the presence of food as the unconditioned response (UCR).
Prior to the dog being exposed to the bell, it is considered to be a neutral stimulus (NS) as before conditioning, it produces no reflexive response.
THE THREE PHASES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
The process of classical conditioning can be broken down into three phases:
Before conditioning
During Conditioning (or Acquisition)
After conditioning
Using pavlov's experiment as the example, the following outlines what happens in each phase of the classical conditioning process
BEFORE CONDITIONING
Before conditioing the bell produces no response, and the food naturally produces the response of salivation.
Neutral Stimulus - Bell
Unconditioned stimulus - Food
Unconditioned response - Salvating in the presence of food
DURING CONDITIONING
When conditioning is taking place, the bell is repeatedly sounded and followed immediately by the presentation of food. This is known as "pairing" and is done multiple times in order for the dog to learn the association between the Neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus (Dog learns that the bell is present when food is present)
AFTER CONDITIONING
As the dog has now learned to associate the bell with the food it is displaying the response of salivation when the bell rings. The food doesnt have to be present for the salivation to occur, because the dog has learned that the bell rings directly before food is presented. As this response is learned, the bell is now known as the conditioned stimulus and the salivation to the bell as the conditioned respones.
Conditioned Stimulus - Bell
Conditioned Response - Salivating when the bell sounds.
HUMAN EXAMPLE
Let's look at a human example of classical conditioning. You would reflexively blink if a puff of air was directed towards your eyes. Therefore:
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Puff of air aimed at the eyes
Unconditioned Response (UCR): Blinking when detecting the puff of air.
Let's say I play a beeping sound immediately prior to blowing air into your eyes. Initially, the beep would generate no response. ThNOerefore:
Neutral Stimulus (Beep)
If I were to repeat this process whereby I play a beep immediately followed by blowing air into your eyes, you would soon learn that the beep precedes the presence of air in the eyes, and therefore you would learn to blink when you heard the beep. Therefore:
Conditioned Stimulus: Beep
Conditioned Response: Blinking when hearing the beep
What makes this classical conditioning is that it is reflexive and the learner is passive. The learner doesn't have to try to learn the action, they will instinctively do it as it is a protective, automatic response.
TIP:
The NS always becomes the CS. And the UCR always becoms the CR, but it is important to note that the CR now happens in the presence of the CS. For example if we look at the example above, if we were to say that blinking is the CR, its not entirely accurate. Blinking when hearing the beep is the correct way to identify the CR as it differentiates it from blinking to the puff of air.
It is also important that we learn to differentiate between stimuli and responses. A response is an action/behaviour such as blinking or salivating. The stimulus is the event or object that leads to the behaviours.
If we can identify the NS (as it always generates no response initially), the UCS and the UCR, then we can reliably predict the outcome using the above logic.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.1
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.1
1. **(2 marks)** Define classical conditioning and identify the roles of the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the conditioned stimulus (CS) in this process.
2. **(3 marks)** Explain the concept of stimulus generalization in classical conditioning. Provide an example that is not related to Pavlov's dog experiment.
3. **(3 marks)** Describe stimulus discrimination within the context of classical conditioning. How does it differ from stimulus generalization? Include an example to support your explanation.
4. **(2 marks)** What is extinction in the context of classical conditioning? Describe a situation where extinction might occur.
5. **(2 marks)** Define spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning. Give an example that illustrates this phenomenon.
6. **(4 marks)** Discuss how the process of classical conditioning can be applied to modify behavior in humans. Provide an example involving the conditioning of a positive emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus.
7. **(3 marks)** Explain how stimulus generalization could be both beneficial and potentially problematic in everyday life. Provide examples to illustrate your points.
8. **(4 marks)** In classical conditioning, how might stimulus discrimination be trained or enhanced? Discuss the implications of this for therapeutic interventions.
9. **(5 marks)** Discuss the relationship between long-term potentiation (LTP) and classical conditioning. How does LTP contribute to the process of forming associations between stimuli?
10. **(10 marks)** Scenario Question: Jamie has a phobia of spiders, which developed after being bitten by a spider as a child. Recently, Jamie has undergone therapy involving classical conditioning to address this phobia. The therapy used a harmless spider as the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the presentation of calming music as the unconditioned stimulus (US), with the goal of eliciting a relaxed response (the conditioned response, CR) when Jamie sees a spider. After several sessions, Jamie reported feeling less anxious around spiders, but a few weeks later, the fear seemed to resurface slightly.
a. Analyze how classical conditioning was used in Jamie’s therapy, including the roles of the US, CS, and CR.
b. Explain the concepts of extinction and spontaneous recovery in the context of Jamie’s experience.
c. Discuss how stimulus generalization might affect Jamie’s response to different types of spiders or spider-related stimuli.
d. Considering the resurgence of Jamie's fear, propose additional strategies that could be used to reinforce the therapy’s effectiveness, integrating the concept of long-term potentiation (LTP) in your answer.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.1 ANSWERS
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.1 ANSWERS
1. Define classical conditioning and identify the roles of the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the conditioned stimulus (CS) in this process. (2 marks)
Classical conditioning is a learning process where a previously neutral stimulus (CS) comes to elicit a response (CR) after being paired with a stimulus (US) that naturally elicits that response (UR). **(1 mark)** In Pavlov's experiment, the food is the unconditioned stimulus (US) that naturally elicits salivation, the unconditioned response (UR). The bell, initially neutral, becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS) when paired with the US, eventually eliciting the conditioned response (CR) of salivation on its own. **(1 mark)**
2. Explain the concept of stimulus generalization in classical conditioning. Provide an example that is not related to Pavlov's dog experiment. (3 marks)
Stimulus generalization occurs when a conditioned response (CR) is elicited by stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus (CS). **(1 mark)** For example, if a child is conditioned to feel fear (CR) at the sound of a dentist's drill (CS), they might also feel fear when hearing similar high-pitched sounds, like a kitchen blender. **(2 marks)**
3. Describe stimulus discrimination within the context of classical conditioning. How does it differ from stimulus generalization? Include an example to support your explanation. (3 marks)
Stimulus discrimination is the ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and other similar stimuli, only responding to the CS. **(1 mark)** It differs from stimulus generalization, where the response is elicited by similar stimuli, not just the CS. For example, if a dog is conditioned to salivate (CR) to a tone of a specific pitch (CS) but does not salivate to different pitches, the dog is exhibiting stimulus discrimination. **(2 marks)**
4. What is extinction in the context of classical conditioning? Describe a situation where extinction might occur. (2 marks)
Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (US), leading to a decrease in the conditioned response (CR). **(1 mark)** For instance, if a bell (CS) is rung repeatedly without presenting food (US), a dog's salivation (CR) to the bell will eventually decrease and stop. **(1 mark)**
5. Define spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning. Give an example that illustrates this phenomenon. (2 marks)
Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a conditioned response (CR) after a period of no exposure to the conditioned stimulus (CS) following extinction. **(1 mark)** For example, if a dog stops salivating to the sound of a bell (CS) after extinction, but then starts salivating again when the bell is rung after a few days of no exposure, this is spontaneous recovery. **(1 mark)**
6. Discuss how the process of classical conditioning can be applied to modify behavior in humans. Provide an example involving the conditioning of a positive emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus. (4 marks)
Classical conditioning can modify human behavior by associating a neutral stimulus with a positive or negative unconditioned stimulus, leading to a new conditioned response. **(1 mark)** For example, if a person feels anxious (UR) when visiting the dentist, a dentist might use classical conditioning by offering a favorite flavor of ice cream (US) after each visit. Over time, the dentist's office (CS), previously a neutral stimulus, might evoke feelings of happiness or anticipation (CR) instead of anxiety. **(3 marks)**
7. Explain how stimulus generalization could be both beneficial and potentially problematic in everyday life. Provide examples to illustrate your points. (3 marks)
Stimulus generalization can be beneficial by allowing learned responses to apply to similar situations, enhancing adaptability. **(1 mark)** For example, a child learning to be cautious around hot stoves will generalize this caution to similar appliances, like heaters. However, it can be problematic if the generalization leads to irrational fears, such as fearing all dogs after being bitten by one. **(2 marks)**
8. In classical conditioning, how might stimulus discrimination be trained or enhanced? Discuss the implications of this for therapeutic interventions. (4 marks)
Stimulus discrimination can be enhanced by consistently presenting the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (US) in the presence of similar stimuli and only pairing the CS and US together. **(2 marks)** This technique can be important in therapy, such as treating phobias by exposing the patient to the phobic object (CS) in a safe environment without the feared outcome (US), teaching
them to discriminate between actually dangerous situations and harmless ones. **(2 marks)**
9. Discuss the relationship between long-term potentiation (LTP) and classical conditioning. How does LTP contribute to the process of forming associations between stimuli? (5 marks)
Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity, playing a crucial role in learning and memory. **(1 mark)** In classical conditioning, LTP contributes to the process of forming associations between stimuli by enhancing the synaptic connections between neurons that represent the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US). **(2 marks)** This enhancement makes it easier for the CS to activate the neural pathway of the US, leading to a more robust and lasting conditioned response (CR). **(2 marks)**
10. Scenario Question: Jamie has a phobia of spiders... (10 marks)
a. Classical conditioning was used in Jamie’s therapy by pairing the sight of a harmless spider (CS) with calming music (US) to elicit relaxation (CR) instead of fear. **(2.5 marks)**
b. Extinction occurred as the fear response to spiders (CR) decreased through repeated exposure to the spider (CS) without a harmful outcome (US). Spontaneous recovery explains the slight resurgence of fear, as previously extinguished responses can reappear after a period of no exposure to the CS. **(2.5 marks)**
c. Stimulus generalization might cause Jamie to feel anxious around objects or situations resembling spiders, not just the specific spiders encountered in therapy. **(2.5 marks)**
d. To reinforce the therapy's effectiveness, strategies incorporating repeated, varied exposures to different types of spiders (CS) in conjunction with calming techniques (US) could be used, leveraging LTP by strengthening the neural connections associated with the calming response to spider-related stimuli. **(2.5 marks)**
EXAM QUESTION
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