Beef Cattle

https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20040915215814/http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/41315/20040406-0000/www.agric.nsw.gov.au/reader/lotfeeding.html

Program:

1. Cattle breeds  

• Explain why identified cattle breeds have been used in commercial beef production: Angus, Hereford, Brahman, Simmental, Limousin

• Identify desired traits used in selective breeding programs

2. Breeding programs  

• Compare pure breeding to cross-breeding programs.

3. Production systems  

• Describe advantages and disadvantages for each of pasture finished and feedlot finished production systems.

4. Beef marketing  

• Assess the effectiveness of one marketing strategy.

• Outline the role of value-added beef products.

5. Feeding programs  

• Differentiate between native and introduced pasture

• Identify local pasture types

• Associate pasture growth with local climate patterns

• Identify local pasture weeds

• Evaluate different grazing systems

  • rotational grazing

  • strip grazing

  • zero grazing

6. Management  

• Calendar of operations and purpose (how and why) of husbandry practices performed on the James Ruse Angus Stud Herd.

7. Sustainability

• Compare impacts of past and present management practices

• Compare short term and long term effects of current practices

8. Animal welfare

• Examine short and long term effects of dehorning

• Describe a method of disbudding and dehorning

• Describe an alternative to disbudding and dehorning

• Identify the acceptable age for castration before anesthetic must be used

1. Cattle breeds  

Explain why identified cattle breeds have been used in commercial beef production: Angus, Hereford, Brahman, Simmental, Limousin

Different breed types

• British (Bos Taurus)

• European (Bos Taurus)

• Bos indicus (Zebu) Breed Cattle

• Composite

British vs European

British

• Early maturing

• Less feed

• Good fertility

• Good maternal traits

• Some used for their marbling qualities for the Japanese feedlot market.

European

• Late maturing + more muscles

• More feed

• Some also have good maternal traits

Many successful crossbreeding herds cross European bulls over British breed cows to produce faster growing, higher yielding calves.

Bos Indicus

• Used in parts of Australia with lower nutrition

• Higher survivability, adaptation to poorer environments and greater parasite resistance. 

• Sometimes crossed with British

• Characteristics: fatty hump shoulders, drooping ears, a large dewlap

Composite

A combination of 2 or more breeds.

Beef breeds:

breed

qualities

description (colour)

image

Angus

(British Bos taurus)

- marbling abilities (good carcass quality)

- easy calving

- early maturity

black

Hereford

(British Bos taurus)

- adaptable (grazed or feedlot)

red and white

Brahman (Bos indicus)

for tropics

- parasite and heat resistance

- can utilise low-quality feed

- often used in crossbreeding programs for new breeds

grey, red, or black

Simmental (European Bos taurus)

- muscular and late maturing

- milking ability

- good FCR

- ideal for crossbreeding (even lines with good traits)

blonde/chestnut/

cherry red 

white markings

Limousin (European Bos taurus)

- heavily muscled 

- slow maturing but heavier weights

Rich gold

Identify desired traits used in selective breeding programs

Favorable characteristics of breeds:

• Growth rates

• Adaptation to the environment

• FCR

• Carcass merit/suitability

• Reproductive fitness (maternal ability, fertility, calving ease)

• Resistance to pests/diseases

• Marbling

EBV

Estimated Breeding Value:

• An animal’s genetic merit for several traits

• Expressed by comparing an animal’s traits to its breed (weight, fertility/calving and carcase)

• EBVs are expressed in the same units as the recorded trait (%, days, kg, cm, mm)

EBV baselines

• The EBV baseline for a breed is used to compare an animal’s traits to the typical traits of the breed. 

• Each breed’s baseline was typically set in 1980

• The baseline for each trait is 0, and the traits for a particular sire will be 

  • positive no. = higher

  • negative. no. = lower

Example EBV

How/Why are EBVs used?

• Accessed through organizations (BREEDPLAN and TACE, TransTasman Angus Cattle Evaluation)

• Used so farmers can 

  • know and compare traits of sires

  • Choose sires that can produce calves with desired traits

• 
  The calves of the sire will have half of its traits (the sire is expected to pass down half of its genetics)

• e.g., if a sire’s 200-day weight is +40, that means its progeny’s 200-day weight will be 20kg heavier compared to progeny with a bull with a 200-day weight of 0.

Common traits

• Weight (birth + other stages’ weight, milk weight)

• Fertility/calving  (Scrotal Size, days to calving, gestation length, calving ease)

• Carcass (eye muscle area, fat depth, retail beef yield, intramuscular fat, carcass weight, shear force)

• Other (docility, net feed intake, structural soundness, flight time, disease resistance)

EBV (For elaboration on traits + further resources)

2. Breeding programs  

Compare pure breeding to cross-breeding programs.

Pure breeding

VS

Cross breeding

outline

Pure

To produce offspring specific to their breed standard (stud breeders)

Cross

Offspring used to supply the fresh meat market (commercial)

advantages

Pure

- Attempt to create offspring with a superior genotype - Getting better traits from parents

- Consistent, predictable characteristics

Cross

- Mating purebred animals from different breeds

- A farmer can create offspring with certain genetic traits

- Hybrid vigor (heterosis- The tendency of a cross-bred animal to show qualities superior to both of its parents)

- Can provide the ability to overcome a breed weakness

disadvantages

Pure

increases the chance of undesirable recessive traits being passed down

Cross

pure parent lines still need to be maintained (further breeding with crossbred animals → decreased predictability and productivity)

Summary:

Pure breeding

• Predictable

• Lower production, increased chance of unwanted recessive genes being passed down

Cross breeding

• Heterosis, combines the best traits of each breed

• Need to maintain pure lines

Types of purebreeding

• Outcross: mating unrelated animals of the same breed

• Inbreeding: mating individuals that are more closely related than the average of the population to which they belong

• Linebreeding: a particular superior animal is used over several generations of mating. (form of inbreeding)

3. Production systems  

Describe advantages and disadvantages of pasture finished and feedlot finished production systems.

Pasture:

Advantages:

• Cheaper production: management costs low (no harvesting, delivering feed + infrastructure)

• Animal welfare: natural behaviours, social behaviour, no bullying and diseases, shelters in extreme weather.

Disadvantages: 

• Environmental impact: soil compaction (hooves), land degradation (overgrazing), degrade riparian zones (polluting waterways through erosion)

• Animal handling and supervision: not observed on a daily basis, injuries/pests/diseases may remain undetected for long periods. Mustering required for routine husbandry. 

• Rotational grazing (more land + labor required)

• Number of animals/ha is limited, therefore production can’t be expanded

• Takes longer to reach market weight

Feedlot:

Animals are kept in confined spaces and fed a high quality grain diet (80% grain) to reach market weight quickly

Advantages:

• Dietary control: higher feed quality + control → higher growth rates + faster maturity. Feed suited for target markets (e.g. wagyu)

• Climatic control: e.g. drought has has less impact on animals as water and feed can be supplied.

• more efficient use of land because more animals can be raised in a smaller piece of land (stocking density per hectare is higher)

• Husbandry practices are easier

• Higher profit (higher meat quality)

Disadvantages:

• Animal welfare: bullying + diseases, limited shade = potential heat stress, dust = eye and respiratory problems

• Environmental impact: large amount of waste/sewage in a small area that needs to be sustainably managed, large altering of environment.

Pasture Plants:

1. Annual Plants

Plants that complete their entire life cycle — from germination to seed production — within one growing season, and then die.

2. Biennial Plants

Plants that require two years to complete their life cycle. In the first year, they grow leaves and store energy; in the second year, they flower, produce seeds, and die.

3. Perennial Plants

Plants that live for more than two years. They typically flower and produce seeds each year after reaching maturity, and can go dormant during unfavorable seasons.

4. Dormant

A temporary inactive state in plants (or animals) where growth and development are slowed down or stopped, often in response to adverse environmental conditions like cold or drought.

5. Palatable

Describes how acceptable or tasty a plant is to grazing animals. Highly palatable plants are readily eaten, while less palatable ones are avoided.

6. Native Pasture

Pastureland composed mainly of indigenous (naturally occurring) grasses and plants that are well adapted to the local climate and soil, requiring minimal human intervention.

7. Introduce

To bring a plant, animal, or species into a new area where it does not naturally occur. In agriculture, this can involve planting non-native species to improve pasture or crop yields.

4. Beef marketing  

Assess the effectiveness of one marketing strategy.

Marketing campaigns/strategies:

• TV/Radio commercial

• FB page

• Free recipe book “entice”

TV/radio commercials

TV and radio commercials, such as “you are thinking beef”, are commonly used to persuade consumers to buy beef.

advantages:

• Target audience: people who buy beef

• Educates people about nutritional value

Disadvantages:

• High cost (around 30 secs = $30 million with celebrities)

Overall, TV and radio commercials are a very effective way to promote a product, but can only be used by companies with large budgets.

Sample response

TV and radio commercials is a popular method to promote something to an audience. It is an effective method as it targets an older audience buying beef in a large capacity, and has the capacity to educate people about its nutritional value. The main disadvantage is that this strategy is very costly, with 30 seconds potentially requiring $30 million. Overall, TV and radio commercials are a very effective way to promote a product, but can only be used by companies with large budgets.

Social media

Sample response

Social media is a platform where promoting a product through an account or sponsored posts is possible. It is an effective method of promotion as it reaches a large audience very quickly. However it is time-consuming and it allows negative feedback, which may negatively damage the company's reputation. Overall, social media is a relatively effective way to promote a product, but has large risks.

Outline the role of value added beef products.

To process beef to increase its sale value (make it sellable/increase the price)

1. Sellable - Offcuts of beef that would not sell otherwise are minced and processed as sausages, pies etc.

2. Increase in value - By processing such as marination, dicing, kebabs, ready roast by adding spices.

5. Feeding programs  

Differentiate between native and introduced pastures

Identify local pasture types

Native pastures

Introduced pastures

Plant communities that originated in Australia

• Kangaroo grass

• Wallaby grass

• Salt bush (grows in salty marshes/soils)

• Spinifex

1. Spiky, thorny, very little leaf material, tough to chew/woody

2. Low palatability + digestibility

3. Not very nutritious (australian soil lacks NPK)

Plant communities introduced from overseas

• Kikuyu

• Ryegrass

• Clover

• Lucerne

1. A lot of green material

2. Very palatable

3. Can support a high stocking density

4. Extra irrigation + fertilizer

Advantages of native pastures

1. Can survive through drought (stored until it rains)

2. No fertilizer + irrigation

3. Supplement for grain-fed diet

Pastures were introduced as they were more suitable for the introduced livestock species.

Identify local pasture weeds

• Fireweed

• Scotch thistle

Associate pasture growth with local climate patterns.

Summer growing pastures: clover, kikuyu (kikuyu is the main grass on the JRAHS pasture and grows during Summer, Spring and Fall but is dormant during Winter. This is not enough to provide the grazing animals with their nutritional requirements. This period of time where the pasture does not meet animal nutritional requirements is known as "winter feed gap". To overcome the "winter feed gap", the JRAHS farm buys supplementary feed in the form of lucerne hay, another option that could be investigated is to grow a winter growing pasture such as rye grass or oats. Presently, the school relies on bought lucerne hay to supplement the grazing of the animals.)

Winter growing pastures: rye, oats

Evaluate different grazing systems: rotational, strip, zero.

Rotational grazing

Moved from one paddock to the next (lucerne = 6-8 weeks)

• Avoids overgrazing

• Helps to avoid buildup of a pest (worms)

• Can selectively graze over more palatable species

• Reduces movement of nutrients

Strip grazing

Stock are put into each strip and moved to the next when it is eaten (moveable electric fencing, strip 1-2 days).

• Uniform use of pasture

• Reduces movement of nutrients

• Requires labor to manage movement

• Needs to have water source available in each section

• Decline in per head animal production as they graze less nutritious plant species.

Zero grazing

Pasture cut + fed to livestock in feeders. 

• Used for lots and when pasture is too dense/high.

• Reduces pasture damage (soil compaction)

• No opportunity for selective grazing

• Costs (machinery + infrastructure)

• Labor

• Manage large waste 

• Soil nutrients carried away in the cut material

Pastures require both legumes (40%) and grasses (60%).

• Legumes: symbiosis with rhizobium bacteria (builds up levels of nitrogen)

Factors that need to be considered when selecting species/cultivars for a pasture:

1. Supplies food all year

2. Easily eaten and digested

3. Palatable (tasty)

4. Drought resistant

5. Succulent (contains sufficient moisture)

6. Protects soil by providing good surface cover

7. Regenerates quickly after grazing

8. Persistent (able to survive and disperse)

9. Prevents weed growth

10. Non-toxic to stock.

Establishment techniques:

• Prepared seedbed

• Direct drilling or sodseeding

• Broadcasting or aerial sowing

6. Management  

Calendar of operations and purpose (how and why) of husbandry practices performed on the James Ruse Angus Stud Herd.

Joining: 10 weeks

• Timed so calving is during term time + spring/summer (for kikuyu + clover pasture growth)

Calves:

• Castration: first week of life (Elastrator rings), + Ruse ear tag and NLIS (national livestock identification system) ear tag applied also at this time

• Vaccination (5-in 1 Vaccine): 4-6 weeks of age, then later a second vaccination 4-6 weeks after, and then 6 months after that.

Female calves are tattooed, ear tagged (yellow Ruse), NLIS ear tag applied at the first vaccination. 

Adult cattle are given a yearly booster of 5-in 1 vaccine when the first calf is given its initial vaccination.

• Weaning: 6 months of age

Pests

• Lice treatment (winter) with a lousicide if itching. (2020: Ivermectin based pour-on treatment).

• Buffalo flies (summer) 

  • Backline pour-on insecticide treatment: protects cattle for 21 days from buffalo fly. (Also controls brown stomach worms, ticks, lice. Active ingredient = Ivermectin)

  • Tea Tree backrubs for cattle to access to relieve irritation 

  • Paddock rotation

  • Dung beetle ‘friendly’ chemical applications to eliminate manure and nhibit fly lifecycles.

• Term 4: Fly traps

Feed

• Rotationally grazed

• Supplementary feed of Lucerne Hay throughout the winter feed gap

• The bull is fed a mixed grain ration throughout winter.

• Given access to a sown pasture mix of grasses, clovers and Lucerne via strip grazing in the resting vegie plot area for short periods of time (to prevent Bloat). 

Calendar of Ops 2025 Angus Stud Cattle Enterprise (full 2025 calendar + 2025 herd info)

7. Sustainability

Compare impacts of past and present management practices.

Aim: to kill internal and external parasites

Past: Arsenic/DDT Dip

Present: pour on drench liquid

adv

Effective 

- Effective 

- Less stress

- Less environmental impact 

- Chemicals easier + safer to use

disadv

- Resistance

- Bad animal welfare (stress)

- Environmental impact: contamination (residues can be taken up by plants/animals)

- Chemicals→ health complications

- Infrastructure + labor requirements

- Resistance

- Still requires labor (muster and yard)

Sustainable approach: Integrated Pest Management (IPM), including breeding programs to develop tick resistant animals utilising Bos indicus genetics.

Compare short term and long term effects of current practices.

Pour on drench liquid

Short term effects:

1. Effective: kills parasites (internal + external: worms, ticks, flies)

2. Relief from itching and biting + less stress

3. More grazing/feeding peacefully

Long term effects:

1. Efficient weight gain due to less stress, no parasites and better grazing.

2. Drench residue in the droppings unless it is broken down into harmless compounds over time.

3. Resistance buildup to the pour on active ingredient.

8. Animal welfare

Examine short and long term effects of dehorning.

Dehorning

Removal of horns from an animal of a young age.

Short term:

• Removal of horn producing tissue

• Knife method:

  • Bleeding

  • Potential infection of wound

Long term:

• Less aggressive to farmer (safety to farmer)

• Doesn’t damage fence (safety to animal)

• Easier to transport

• Prevents bruising of meat

Describe a method of disbudding and dehorning

When the animal is young the horn is just a bud, and it is scooped out with 1cm of skin around it.

Hot Iron

Up to 8 weeks

• Apply heated iron firmly over emerging horn bud

• Roll hot iron over the horn bud several times (ring of tissue around the bud is burnt through the full thickness of the skin), transfer heat evenly

• In due course the horn bud will drop off

• No bleeding or open wound, any time of the year

Knife (also can be done with spoon/tube dehorners

• Curved knife

• Start cut 1-2cm away from base 

• draw the knife through the skin towards and through the horn, slicing off the horn level with the skull

• Elliptical piece

Afterwards: 

• Heat cauterizing (older calves)

• Dusting powder (may also include fly repellent)

• Dehorning pads

Notes:

• Skilled operator required (clean cut, no hesitation, quicker, correct equipment). 

• In groups of 5-6, reunite with mother as soon as possible. 

• Do it early in the morning for good lighting and enough time to call for help. 

• Not windy (less dusty). Be mindful of the season (not many flies).

• If the animal is 6 months or older, they must be dehorned by a vet (law)

Describe an alternative to disbudding and dehorning

Breeding polled animals (naturally hornless)

Identify the acceptable age for castration before anesthetic must be used.

6 months, afterwards it is not legal to do it without being a vet.

Pracs

Observe and apply safe operating procedures for cattle handling during mustering from paddock to paddock and within the cattle yards and crush

Generally 

• Move quietly (loudness and violence creates stress)

• Small groups (make pen half to 3 quarters full) (Our school holding cell = not more than 3 animals at a time)

• Understand behavior (flight zone)

• Cattle can kick (don't use dogs)

• Point of balance (move in the opposite direction), at their shoulder

  • Behind point of balance: animal moves forward

  • Infront: animal moves backwards

• Tail twisting to move cattle (let go when they do)

• Avoid getting into single file chute (injury can occur)

Source: Cattle Handling Safety

Observe behavior of cattle

Herd instinct

• Don’t separate an individual animal from the group (agitation when removed from the herd)

• Always use the group to get them where you want to go

Social order

• When herds are moved/mixed, aggression occurs until the new order is established

• Adult bulls commonly fight (especially in crowded areas)

• Individual cattle may be picked on by more dominant individuals

Flight zones

• Flight distance: the point at which the animal starts to turn and move away

• Flight zone: the distance measured around the animal in a circle

• The flight zone gets bigger when it is excited (moved, transported, yarded, exposed to stimuli)

Conduct a risk assessment associated with mustering cattle and administering drench

1. Identify hazard

2. Assessing risk + Conduct a risk assessment

3. Controlling the risk

Mustering cattle

1. Identify hazard

• Injuries from aggressive cattle behaviour (charging, trampling, kicking, biting)

• Diseases transferred from animals

• Heat stress, skin cancer (sun and other elements)

2. Assessing risk

• Likelihood: possible

• Consequence: moderate

• High risk

3. Controlling the risk

• Follow safe work practices (conduct yourself responsibly and use equipment appropriately)

• Wear protective gear such as eyewear, footwear, clothing.

• Learn cattle behavior

Drench

1. Not administering a correct dose

2. Unlikely, moderate/medium risk

3. Read instructions, check that the dose on the drench gun is accurate by measuring the volume

WHS report for mustering cattle

When mustering cattle, there are a few safety points we should be considering.

The most prominent one is aggressive cattle behavior. Cattle can potentially be aggressive and inflict injuries on the person mustering, which may be from charging, trampling, kicks and animal bites. This is a medium risk as it is relatively likely and the consequences are high in severity. This risk can be controlled by having PPE and being appropriately trained in how to properly muster cattle and understand their behavior.

Additionally, animal diseases may be passed on. These zoonotic diseases may include salmonella, listeriosis and ringworm, and are generally transmitted through direct contact with infected animals. This is a medium risk as the potential of infection is high and some diseases may be severe. This risk can be controlled through PPE and effective sanitation aftrer handling with cattle.

Lastly, the sun and other elements can cause heat stress and skin cancer due to working long hours. This is a medium-low risk as it is somewhat likely and can potentially cause a severe consequence, although it is not likely. This risk can be controlled by PPE, effective sun protection, and taking breaks from the sun.