Poultry

Poultry refers to domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of harvesting useful animal products such as meat, eggs, or feathers1. The practice of raising poultry is known as poultry farming1. These birds are most typically members of the superorder Galloanserae (fowl), especially the order Galliformes (which includes chickens, quails, and turkeys)1. The term also includes waterfowls of the family Anatidae (ducks and geese) but does not include wild birds hunted for food known as game or quarry1.

The domestication of chicken, the most populous poultry species, occurred around 8,000 years ago in Southeast Asia1. Domesticated chickens may have been used for cockfighting at first and quail kept for their songs, but people soon realized the advantages of having a captive-bred source of food1. Selective breeding for fast growth, egg-laying ability, conformation, plumage, and docility took place over the centuries1.

In Australia, popular breeds include Australorp, Barnevelder, Easter Egger, Australian Langshan, Leghorn, Old English Game Fowl, Plymouth Rock, and Pekin Bantam2. Each breed has its unique characteristics and is chosen based on factors like egg production, meat yield, adaptability to local conditions, and temperament2.

Chickens

• (Gallus gallus domesticus)

• -Poultry is the collective term for domesticated birds bred for eating. 

• - Poultry is generally the least expensive and most versatile of all main-dish foods

• -Domesticated from a type of Red Jungle Fowl in South East Asia (<6,000 B.C.)

• Chickens, like all domesticated animals, have undergone selective breeding by humans to produce breeds with desirable characteristics

• Chicken, turkey, duck and goose are all types of birds called poultry. Poultry is the domesticated class of bird farmed for their meat, egg or feathers. The term derives from Old French

• There are also dual purpose chickens

• Chickens for meat are called broilers

• Chickens for eggs are called layers

Welfare

The principles for poultry welfare, particularly in Australia, are outlined in the Australian Animal Welfare Standards and Guidelines for Poultry1. These principles are underpinned by contemporary animal welfare science and are the result of an extensive stakeholder and public consultation process1. Here are some key principles:

1. Responsibilities: People in charge are responsible for the welfare of poultry under their care2.

2. Feed and Water: Poultry must have access to adequate and appropriate feed and water2.

3. Risk Management: There should be strategies in place to manage extreme weather, natural disasters, disease, injury, and predation2.

In addition, the Poultry Hub Australia outlines the key principles of poultry health management as3:

1. Prevention of Disease: Implementing measures to prevent the onset of diseases.

2. Early Recognition of Disease: Monitoring the flock regularly to detect any signs of illness early.

3. Early Treatment of Disease: Providing prompt and appropriate treatment when disease is detected.

Furthermore, the basic needs of poultry include4:

• Readily accessible food and water to maintain health and vigor.

• Freedom to move, stand, turn around, stretch, sit, and lie down.

• Visual contact with other members of the species.

• Accommodation which provides protection from the weather and which neither harms nor causes distress.

• Prevention of disease, injury, and vice, and their rapid treatment should they occur.

Physiological Needs:

• Nutrition: Poultry need a balanced diet that includes proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals to maintain their health and productivity.

• Water: Access to clean, fresh water is essential for hydration and various bodily functions.

• Light: Light influences poultry behavior and physiological processes such as feeding and egg production.

• Temperature: Poultry need to be kept in an environment with a suitable temperature range to maintain their body temperature.

Behavioral Needs:

• Social Interaction: Poultry are social animals and need to interact with other members of their species.

• Movement: Poultry need space to move, stand, turn around, stretch, sit, and lie down.

• Foraging and Dust-Bathing: These are natural behaviors for poultry that contribute to their physical health and psychological well-being.

• Perching and Roosting: These behaviors are important for poultry’s sense of security and comfort.

Understanding and practicing good animal welfare practices is important for several reasons:

1. Ethical Responsibility: Animals are sentient beings capable of feeling pain and experiencing emotions. It’s our ethical responsibility to ensure their well-being and prevent unnecessary suffering.

2. Health and Productivity: Animals that are well-cared for are healthier and more productive. In the context of poultry, for example, stress can negatively impact egg production and growth rates.

3. Food Safety: Good animal welfare practices can contribute to food safety. Stress in animals can lead to a weakened immune system, making them more susceptible to diseases that could potentially be passed on to humans.

4. Sustainability: Practices that promote animal welfare often align with sustainable farming practices. For example, allowing animals to engage in natural behaviors can contribute to the overall health of the farm ecosystem.

5. Public Perception and Trust: Consumers are increasingly concerned about the welfare of animals used for food production. Farms that prioritize animal welfare can build trust with consumers and the public.

6. Legal Compliance: Many jurisdictions have laws and regulations related to animal welfare. Understanding and practicing good animal welfare helps ensure compliance with these laws.

In summary, good animal welfare practices are beneficial for the animals, the people who care for them, and society as a whole. They are a key aspect of responsible and sustainable animal husbandry.

Feeding and digestion

The chicken uses its beak to tear food into small pieces and moistens it with saliva. The food then passes through the esophagus to the crop, a storage organ that softens the food. The food moves from the crop to the proventriculus, where it is mixed with acids and enzymes that start breaking down proteins and fats. The food then enters the gizzard, a muscular organ that grinds the food with the help of grit (small stones) that the chicken ingests. The food leaves the gizzard and enters the small intestine, where it is further digested by enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver. The small intestine absorbs nutrients from the food and passes the waste to the large intestine. The large intestine consists of two ceca, pouches that harbor bacteria that help ferment some of the undigested food. The ceca produce a dark, smelly substance that is expelled once a day. The rest of the waste moves to the cloaca, the common opening for the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems. The waste is then excreted as feces.

• Protein and carbohydrates and fats are needed as energy source

• Layer birds have high levels of calcium in their diet. They use 90% of their calcium in one egg,

• Birds indoors need additional vitamins and minerals as they do not have access to sunlight or green feed.

Poultry refers to domestic fowls. In addition to chickens, it can refer to the farming of other birds such as turkeys, guinea fowls, ducks and geese. Here, however, we will just be considering the production of chickens.

Vocabulary

Broiler: a young chicken of either sex, raised for meat. Usually up to eight weeks of age.

Brooder: a device designed to give young chickens the right environment for growth.

Chick: a young bird, from hatching to about four months of age.

Cockerel: a male bird under twelve months of age.

Culling: the removal of sick or unproductive birds.

Hen: a female bird over twelve months of age.

Incubator: a heated structure used for hatching eggs.

Pullet: a female bird under twelve months of age.

Rooster: a male bird over twelve months of age.

Housing - Egg Production

(compare and evaluate alternate production systems)

Free Range:

Birds in free-range systems are housed in sheds and have access to an outdoor range.

• They can practice natural behaviour

• Greater exposure to predators

• Can socially interact with others

• Free to choose when to go outside

• (In Australia, due to our climate hens can be free-range all year.)

Barn:

Birds in barn systems are free to roam within a shade which may have more than one level. The floor may be based on litter and/or other materials such as slats or wire mesh.

• Higher likelihood of injury

• Greater difficulty in identifying sick hens

• Protected from predators

• Are able to practice natural behaviour

• Feed and water are located in the middle of the system

Caged:

Birds in cage systems are continually housed in cages within a shed (at least 550cm^2 per bird).

• Lay more eggs + cheaper eggs

• Rarely gets sick and low mortality rates

• Lower carbon footprint than free range eggs

• Lower bone strength

• Reduced social interaction with other hens

• Clean, automated and highly efficient

Housing - Meat Production

Meat chicken shed systems (deep litter system)

Meat chickens are free to move around on a litter substrate in a shed with temperature and ventilation control appropriate to the location.

Freerange systems

Meat chickens in free-range systems have access to an outdoor range and to an indoor shelter.

Calendar of operations

(Construct a calendar of operations and routine management practices for the barn system.)

Daily:

• Egg collection

• Check feed and water

• Record keeping

• Remove litter

Weekly:

• Fill feed hoppers

• clean + check height of waterers

Monthly:

• Top up nesting material

• Remove dusty feed

• Disinfect waterers

Seasonally:

• Check for parasites

• Replace litter

• Winter + summer care

Annually:

• Clean shed

• Depopulate shed

• Restock with new pullets

Factors affecting the production of poultry

1. Pest and disease

Impacts:

• Reduced weight gain

• Stress and suffering leading to reduced appetite - reduction in meat/egg production. 

Symptoms:

• Birds don’t have the energy to preen their feathers and therefore feathers look ruffled

• Birds stay isolated and stay in one spot as they do not have enough energy to roam around

• Droppings may have blood in them or they may be too watery

• Combs and wattles look bleached and not bright pink

2. Nutrition

Carbohydrates → grains → energy

Protein → meals (fish meal) → muscle development (meat)

Vitamin D → strong bones (hens)

Calcium → eggshells → strong bones

Copper → to control infections and diseases caused by microorganisms

Impacts:

• Reduced weight/yield production

• Susceptibility to infection and diseases

• Loss of energy, unable to carry out natural behaviour

3. Environment

• Protection from predators (electric fence, baits, keeping the shed door shut)

• Stocking density

• Temperature, light

The Basic Needs of Poultry

(list the basic needs of poultry)

• Readily accessible food and water.

• Freedom to move, stand, turn around, stretch, sit and lie down.

• Visual contact with other members of the species.

• accommodation which provides protection from the weather and which neither harms nor causes distress.

• Prevention of disease and injury.

Summarise minimum standards in the different poultry housing systems.

Controlling Dust (and ammonia)

(Identify and suggest ways to correct safety and health issues eg. dust, ammonia.)

Cause of dust:

• Poultry sheds have dust

• Dust is found in birds

  • Small bits of feather (dander)

  • Skin

  • Scales

• Fine particles of feed

• Deep litter in floor housing

prevention/control:

• Proper ventilation

• clean

Chicken Digestive System

(identify and state the function of the parts of the digestive tract and the reproductive organs of a hen)

Chickens don’t have teeth. Saliva is produced to make food easier to swallow.

Pests - (red) Mites

(describe the effects/symptoms and design a control/prevention program including reference to the life cycle of the parasite/disease)

Cause:

Mites can be found in cracks and crevices, hiding during the day. These will normally be timber, but they can hide in metals if they have to. They will need a host to obtain food at night, and female mites cause the most damage.

Effects/Symptoms:

Birds with mites may be slightly unwell. They will be slightly anaemic and refuse to go to nests. Mites are very harmful to growing birds and prevent them from growing.

Control/Prevention:

Mites can be found if you place a sheet of white material around a perch at night. To eradicate them, repeatedly use insecticide over a period of 10 days. 

“The life cycle of a red mite is short, but have huge reproductive capacities especially in the early summer months. Due to this, take frequent checks if your chickens have mites in the early summer season.” -bjc/berry

Diseases - Coccidiosis

(describe the effects/symptoms and design a control/prevention program including reference to the life cycle of the parasite/disease)

“Coccidiosis is a common disease that infects chickens all over the world. The symptoms of it include watery or bloody diarrhoea, unwillingness to eat and also ruffled feathers. 

Control/Prevention

If this disease is spotted, treat with anticoccidial drugs such as chemotherapy. To prevent diseases like this spreading, make your sure your shed/barn has good hygiene and you can also choose to vaccinate your chickens against it.

This disease is detrimental if not contained correctly, as its entire life cycle only takes 4 to 6 days before it replicates itself and spreads to other chickens in your colony. This will cause an exponential growth in chickens being infected.” - bjc/berry

Chicken Nutrition

(For layer pellets: state what goes into the feed, state what nutritional need is met by the, following: grain, meal, fat, Vit D, minerals)

Layer pellets:

• Grains (energy)

• Meal (protein, eggs)

• Fat (energy)

• Vitamin D (housed fowls)

• Minerals (calcium) (egg shells)

Economic Importance

(Use industry figures to describe the relative importance of the egg industry.)

Egg production: how many million dozen eggs in the 2021 financial year (australia):

525.2 million dozen eggs (or 6.3 billion eggs)

Percentage of eggs produced in each state:

Queensland 35%

NSW 30%

Victoria 19%

Sales value in the 2020/21 FY $million:

%1, 107.8 million

% of free-range, cage, barn laid and specialty

Free-range 59%

Cage 28%

Barn-laid 10%

Speciality 4%

Egg Nutritional Value

(Outline the nutritional value of eggs)

Contains:

•  Protein (13%)

• Vitamin A, D, E, K and the B vitamins

• Minerals and essential fatty acids

The egg yolk contains the most nutrition with ⅓ of the protein and ¾ of the calories.

Egg marketing

(Describe the marketing pathway)

Laying

Hens on the farm. May be kept as caged, barn or free range. Kept under strict welfare standards.

Collecting

Most eggs are collected using automated gathering belts. Eggs should be collected at least daily, and frequency should increase in extreme weather.

Washing

Sanitises the egg, should be done immediately after collecting. Wash water is 41-44°c. Eggs should be dried after washing.