Chapter 4: Developing a Plan of Action

A meaningful and efficient research plan usually necessitates reflecting on the following elements:

1. Considering your role as a researcher

2. Establishing the research scope

3. Identifying the research site and participants

4. Choosing data collection procedures

5. Ensuring the study’s validity and trustworthiness

6. Developing ethical guidelines

7. Creating a “to-do” list Considering Your

4.1 Considering Your Role as a Researcher

When conducting research, your role involves deciding how subjective or objective you will be in collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data.

1. Subjectivity vs. Objectivity:

   • Qualitative researchers see subjectivity as essential and often share their personal connections to the topic and experiences during the study.

   • Quantitative researchers prioritize objectivity, maintaining distance from participants to avoid influencing the study.

2. Balancing Objectivity and Subjectivity:
   Action researchers should strive for a balanced approach called disciplined subjectivity, which involves:

   • 1. 1. Recognizing and openly acknowledging personal values, beliefs, and commitments.

        2. Reflecting on past experiences with the research topic.

        3. Being mindful of relationships with participants.

3. Reflexivity:
   Reflexivity means being self-aware of how personal views and experiences influence research decisions. Researchers should acknowledge and monitor the impact of their subjectivity on data collection and interpretation.

By understanding your role as a researcher, you can minimize bias, better interpret findings, and ensure credibility in your work. 

4.2 Establishing the Research Scope

• The scope of your study depends on your research question, purpose, and external factors like timelines, resources, policies, the number and nature of the data collection tools you will utilize, and the participants who will be involved.

• In qualitative research, the process evolves and continues until sufficient insights are gained, while quantitative research is more structured and predefined. 

• Keep your study realistic, manageable, and focused on learning the research process without negatively affecting your responsibilities or practice. 

4.3 Identifying the Research Site and Participants

• In action research, it's important to identify the research site (classroom and school) and participants because the study is focused on solving local problems. 

• Understanding the participants and the context of the setting is crucial for the research, as the results directly apply to the specific environment. 

4.3.1  Research Site 

• Details about the overall school community offer a fuller description of the study within its particular context. 

• These details will include information about the students, parents, staff and faculty, and the neighborhood where the school is located. 

• Depending on the specific focus of the study, additional information may be required.

4.3.2  Research Participants

• The identification of who and how many participants will be asked to take part in your study depends on two factors: (1) determining who will be able to provide valuable information for your study, and (2) criteria for participant sample selection.

• As is the case with all action research, practical considerations of what is doable within your time constraints is a factor in your decision.

• The participants of the research study are the people who affect or are affected by the issue under investigation. 

• Their actions, behaviors, or perceptions should contribute valuable information that will enable you to answer your research question.

• Although all of the participants within the group that is the focus of your investigation may be eligible to be included in the study, you will probably need to select a smaller sample for practical considerations. 

• A set of criteria may guide your choice of a suitable sample.

• The process of sample selection differs between qualitative and quantitative action research.

• Both are small-scale studies that involve a relatively limited number of participants and are focused on local settings. 

• Qualitative action research does not have a formulated set of rules about the size of the sample or how it is selected. It is not uncommon to have a sample size of one to four individuals who have experience and in-depth knowledge about the topic being investigated.

• Quantitative action research relies on numerical data gathered in the study. Although such research may aim at studying a large group of people, such as all parents in a district, it is often difficult and impractical to study these large groups, called populations. Instead, a sample is selected from the population of interest, and information gathered about this sample is generalized back to the population.

Selecting Samples in Qualitative and Quantitative Action Research

4.4 Choosing Data Collection Procedures

• The research question guides your choice of inquiry procedures. 

• The process of constructing data collection tools, therefore, begins by contemplating your research question, deciding what information you need to collect in order to answer this question, and determining what kinds of strategies will be most effective in providing this information.

• Each data collection strategy can be carried out in a variety of ways.

Most Common Data Collection Tools: Their Definitions, Usefulness, and Limitations

4.5 Ensuring the Study’s Validity and Trustworthiness

• You have to be confident that your research findings are valid in order for the results of the study to be useful for your practice and to enable you to shape your decisions and future actions. 

• The term validity refers to the degree to which the study, the data collection tools, and the interpretation of data accurately represent the issue being investigated. 

• Validity is valued in both qualitative and quantitative research; however, it is addressed differently by each approach. 

• In qualitative studies, which are essentially subjective and focused on participants’ perspectives, validity refers to the extent to which data reflect participants’ views of the issue being explored.

4.5.1 Trustworthiness of qualitative

• The most common methods to enhance the trustworthiness of qualitative action research studies are triangulation (the practice of relying on more than one source of data by using multiple methods or obtaining varied perspectives.), disciplined subjectivity (invites you to acknowledge your personal preconceived ideas with regard to the study and to monitor your biases.), thick description (detailed and rich account of the research context and a presentation of the participants’ perspectives in their own words.), member checking (allows you to ensure that you present the participants’ perspectives honestly and accurately.), peer review (provides you with an additional “set of eyes” and helps you to determine the credibility of your interpretation and the accuracy of your findings.), and data audit (process that records and lists the raw data: transcribed notes from observations and interviews, original documents, photographs, and other artifacts). 

4.5.2 Trustworthiness in quantitative studies

• Validity is most often an issue that relates to the appropriateness of the tools used to collect data, the soundness of the study’s design, and the extent to which findings can be generalized to other groups.

• Designed to test the effectiveness of an intervention,the cause and effect relationship, (the independent variable) and the impact it has on the dependent (outcome) variable.

• In quantitative research, the issue of reliability is also important. Reliability refers to the consistency of the tools used to gather data.

4.5.3 Trustworthiness in mixed‑methods studies

• The procedures for ensuring the trustworthiness and validity of qualitative and quantitative approaches are different; therefore, make sure to describe the strategies you will use for each. 

• In the qualitative sections, this may include triangulation, thick description, peer review, and so on. 

• In the quantitative methods portion of your research, discuss the validity and reliability of the data collection tools, as well as the threats to internal validity, when appropriate.

4.6 Developing Ethical Guidelines

Obtaining Permission to Conduct the Study

• Ensure you obtain permission from relevant gatekeepers, such as teachers, administrators, or parents, document the approvals, and follow any required research review processes, including ethics committee submissions, as guided by your instructor or institution. 

Confidentiality of Data Collected

• Ensure the confidentiality of your study's findings by protecting participants' anonymity through pseudonyms, group data reporting, and secure handling of identifying information, especially in electronic formats. 

Informed Consent

• Participants, or their parents or guardians if they are minors, must provide informed consent for studies, and researchers should notify participants about the study's purpose, ensure confidentiality, and offer the option to withdraw without consequences, often via an introduction letter explaining the study details and seeking cooperation. 

Respect toward the Research Site

• As an action researcher, respect the needs and priorities of your school or classroom, foster participant cooperation through open communication, gratitude, and sensitivity, and present truthful findings with care to protect their feelings and self-image. 

Safety of the Participants

• Research participants should not be harmed, and if conflicts arise between research goals and professional duties, the welfare of students, parents, and colleagues should take priority, with participants (or their guardians) being informed they can withdraw at any time. 

Accurate interpretation and Presentation of the data

• Maintain high standards of honesty and accuracy in gathering and interpreting data, and avoid overstating findings or reporting uncertain conclusions. 

4.7 Creating A “to‑do” list

Creating a “to-do” list helps you plan and schedule your data collection activities, assess time requirements, ensure feasibility, and accommodate unforeseen changes while allocating time for analysis and report writing. 

A section from a “to-do” list.

4.8 Finalizing the Research Plan

Finalize your research plan by critically reviewing it, starting with your research question, ensuring all aspects are thoughtfully addressed and aligned with your timeline, circumstances, and objectives to successfully carry out your investigation. 

Checklist: Summary of the elements of t he data collection plans

Key Points

• Purpose of the Research Plan

The research plan serves as a foundational guide for action researchers, helping them thoughtfully prepare for the inquiry process and address essential issues, particularly aiding novice researchers.

• Flexibility in Implementation

Researchers must be prepared to revise and adapt the research plan to accommodate unforeseen circumstances in the school environment.

• Clarity in Research Plan Description
  A well-detailed research plan provides practitioners with a clear and actionable blueprint for guiding the investigation.

• Significance of the Research Question
  The research question is pivotal for developing a meaningful plan that leads to effective and relevant answers.

• Essential Elements of a Research Plan
  Crafting a research plan involves reflecting on the researcher’s role, study scope, data collection techniques, participants, validity, trustworthiness, and ethical considerations.

• Understanding Reflexivity
  Reflexivity involves acknowledging and addressing the influence of the researcher’s preconceptions, values, and experiences on the study's decisions and actions.

• Impact of Study Scope
  The study's scope determines the timeline, the data collection tools employed, and the participants involved.

• Designing Data Collection Tools
  Creating effective data collection tools begins with analyzing the research question, identifying necessary information, and selecting appropriate strategies.

• Contextual Importance in Action Research
  Understanding participants and contextual factors is crucial due to the localized and immediate application of action research findings.

• Participant Selection
  Participant selection is guided by identifying who can provide valuable insights and establishing criteria for their inclusion.

• Describing the School Community
  Details about the school community enrich the contextual understanding of the study.

• Sampling in Qualitative Research
  Qualitative research uses flexible sampling methods, such as typical, extreme, representative, available, and convenience samples.

• Sampling in Quantitative Research
  Quantitative research emphasizes sample size and employs random, systematic, stratified, and convenience sampling methods.

• Mixed-Methods Sampling
  In mixed-methods research, participant selection depends on the research tools and methods employed.

• Incomplete Participant Information
  Researchers should document available participant details while identifying additional information needed during plan development.

• Ensuring Validity in Action Research
  Valid findings enable researchers to make informed decisions and take meaningful actions based on their study.

• Concept of Validity
  Validity measures the accuracy of data collection tools and interpretations, ensuring they represent the research issue effectively.

• Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research
  Qualitative researchers emphasize trustworthiness over validity, focusing on subjective insights and participant perspectives.

• Enhancing Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research
  Techniques like triangulation, thick description, member checking, peer review, and data audits improve qualitative research trustworthiness.

• Validity in Quantitative Research
  Quantitative research emphasizes the appropriateness of tools, study design, and generalizability of findings.

• Reliability in Quantitative Research
  Reliability ensures data collection tools consistently measure what they intend to over time.

• Ethical Guidelines in Research
  Researchers must prioritize the safety, confidentiality, and well-being of participants and those impacted by the study.

• Creating a Research To-Do List
  Developing a to-do list with outlined activities, timelines, materials, and involved personnel facilitates organized and efficient research execution.

Questions

1. Write down your research question in a center of a page, circle it, and jot down around it ideas triggered by the question. Write down the types of information, choices, tasks, and actions you will need to take in order to answer the question. Once you complete this visual map, review it with a practical eye and consider what is doable within the context of your own professional and personal circumstances. (This brainstorm activity may be done alone, with a peer, or with your research group.)

2. Reflect on your role as a researcher and jot down your subjective connection to the topic of your study. Consider the influence of your subjectivity on the decisions you make and actions you take.

3. Explain the types of data that you plan to collect and how they will allow you to answer your research questions.

4. Describe how you will ensure the validity and trustworthiness of your study. If you are conducting a quantitative research or a mixed-methods study, be sure to include an explanation of how you will ensure the reliability of the tools you will use to gather numerical data.

5. Using Checklist: Summary of the elements of the data collection plans, review all the elements of your proposed plan. Jot down potential problems or challenges that you may encounter while implementing the research plan. (This brainstorm activity may be done alone, with a peer, or with your research group.)