Chapter 3: Approaches to Action Research.

3.1 Understanding Paradigms in Action Research

• As an action researcher, you are a generator of knowledge. 
• Understanding the differences between the three paradigms that have shaped contemporary action research is crucial. 
• Clarifying the assumptions underlying each perspective and their practical implications will help develop your inquiry. 
• This understanding empowers you to make informed decisions about the types of questions to ask and the strategies and techniques to collect and analyze data effectively.

3.2 Qualitative Educational Research

• Qualitative research is designed to study school situations and events as they unfold naturally.

• The focus of the investigation is on the meanings of these experiences for the individuals and groups in these settings.

3.2.1 Assumptions about School Reality

• Schools are complex places created by people, with different experiences and perspectives.

• The way people understand school life depends on their personal views, shaped by their background, culture, and history. 

• Actions, behaviors, rules, and beliefs in schools are unique to each situation and seen differently by everyone. 

• This means that the results of qualitative research about schools cannot be applied to every school or situation. 

3.2.2 Research Purpose

• School improvements and better experiences for students should come from the views of the people directly involved. 

• The goal of qualitative research is to understand how students, teachers, parents, and administrators see and experience education. 

• This understanding helps guide meaningful changes in schools. 

3.2.3 Role of a Researcher

• Researchers often spend a lot of time in the place where they are studying. 

• By interacting with the people involved, they can understand the situation better and build trust with them. 

• Researchers also need to be aware of their own beliefs and how these beliefs can affect what they see and how they understand things. 

3.2.4 Research Process

• The research begins with general, open-ended questions. 

• Researchers spend a lot of time in schools, watching and talking to people as they go through their daily routines. 

• They use stories, pictures, and videos to show what people in schools think about their actions and experiences. 

• The goal is to fully understand how different parts of the school, community, and culture are connected. 

• The information collected is studied and sorted into groups, trends, and patterns. 

3.3 Common Qualitative Methods

3.3.1 Case Study

• Research focuses on understanding a specific situation, event, or idea by closely examining one example of it. 

• The researcher looks closely at this example to explain the actions and reasons behind them.

• While case studies often focus on just one example, sometimes researchers look at multiple examples to compare them. 

3.3.2 Ethnographic Research

• Ethnographic research is a way of studying the culture and social life of schools, classrooms, and communities. 

• The researcher spends a lot of time with the group they are studying, learning about their experiences, values, and beliefs. 

3.3.3 Narrative Research

• Narrative research is about sharing life stories from people’s own experiences. 

• These stories are told in their own words and include thoughts on what these experiences mean in a bigger educational setting. 

• This method helps to look back at past experiences and understand how a teacher’s personal and professional life connects with their work. 

• For example, a researcher might ask teachers to tell stories about their experiences or memories, then reflect on how these experiences have shaped their values, beliefs, and morals.  

3.3.4 Critical Research

• Critical research focuses on addressing social issues like unfair treatment and inequality. 

• The goal is to highlight problems like oppression and discrimination and work toward creating positive change. 

• Researchers often involve people who are affected by these issues to help raise awareness and find solutions. 

• For example, a researcher might invite immigrant parents to talk about school testing policies to see if the policies disadvantage students who don’t speak much English. 

3.4 Quantitative Educational Research

• Quantitative research is a way to collect numbers and data from people or groups, and then use statistical methods to analyze that information. 

• Cause-and-effect relationships are best studied in experiments. 

• In non-experimental studies, researchers look at how different things are related without trying to change anything. 

• Statistical data in these studies helps describe events and measure how strongly different factors are connected. 

3.4.1 Assumptions about School Reality

• The way school works is based on certain rules, like the schedule, classroom setup, or grading system. These rules stay the same over time and don’t change much depending on where you are. For example, in most schools, students start class in the morning and finish by afternoon, and there’s a set time for lunch and breaks.

• These rules are real and are not affected by the feelings or beliefs of students or teachers. So, whether a student feels happy or upset, or a teacher believes in one teaching method or another, the rules of the school stay the same. For example, no matter what mood a teacher is in, students still have to follow the class schedule.

• Researchers can study these rules and measure them using scientific methods, like observing how students behave during school hours or looking at the grades students get based on the rules set by the school. For example, they might look at how students' grades are affected by how many hours they spend studying or how often they attend school.

• By studying these rules and behaviors scientifically, researchers can predict what might happen in the future. For example, they might predict that if a student attends school regularly, they are likely to do better on tests. This prediction can be made with a good level of certainty because the rules are consistent and measurable.

3.4.2 Research Purpose

• The purpose of quantitative educational research is to create a better and more effective education system that helps all students do well in their studies. 

• This can be done by finding proven methods or rules, based on science, that improve how teaching and learning happen. 

3.4.3 Researcher Role

• The role of an educational researcher is to remain neutral, unbiased, and focused on the study.

• They try not to get personally involved with the people taking part in the research.

• Researchers follow proper methods to make sure their own opinions do not impact the study, ensuring the results are accurate and reliable. 

3.4.4 Research Process

• The research process usually starts with clear questions about a few specific things. 

• In experiments, researchers focus on understanding cause-and-effect relationships. 

• These questions lead to predictions called hypotheses about what will happen in the study. 

• The study is then designed to test these predictions by controlling all the factors that could affect the results, including both the factors being studied and other outside factors.

• In non-experimental (or descriptive) research, the goal is to measure or describe existing groups, settings, or situations. 

• It can also compare different groups or describe the strength of the relationship between two or more factors. 

• In both types of research, researchers carefully select participants and create a plan for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting numerical data.

3.5 Common Quantitative Methods

3.5.1 Experimental Research

• Experimental research is designed to measure cause-and-effect relationships

• It is conducted to test the effect of planned interventions, called the independent variables, on groups or individuals. 

• The effect of the independent variable is assessed by gathering data on the outcome measure, called the dependent variable. 

• For example, you may want to test the efficacy of cooperative learning group work (the independent variable) on the reading scores (the outcome, or dependent variable) of your students who has learning challenges.

3.5.2 Causal-Comparative (Ex Post Facto) Research 

• Ex Post Facto: This is Latin for "after the fact". It means that the researcher looks at past events or conditions that have already happened, rather than manipulating or controlling them. The researcher doesn’t change anything; they just study what has already occurred. 

• Causal–comparative (ex post facto) research is also used to investigate causal relationships between something that happened in the past and subsequent responses.

• There is no planned intervention because the independent variables have either occurred prior to the start of the study or are variables that cannot be manipulated. 

• In this type of research, researchers don’t change anything themselves. 

• They just observe and compare what happened in the past to understand the effects.

  • • For example, let’s say an ICT teacher wants to know if students who used computers for learning in middle school perform better in coding in high school than students who didn’t use computers as much. 

    • The teacher can’t make the students go back and change how much they used computers before. 

    • Instead, the teacher looks at the students who used computers a lot in middle school and compares their performance in high school coding with students who didn't use computers as much. 

    • The "type of computer use" (independent variable) has already happened before the teacher starts the study.

    • This helps the teacher understand if using computers in school caused a difference in their coding skills later on.

3.5.3 Correlational Research 

• Correlational research investigates the degree of relationship between two or more variables in a given situation. 

• It helps to measure how much one thing changes when the other thing changes.

• The relationship can be quantified and its direction (positive or negative) and strength (high, moderate, or low) can be assessed. 

  • For example, in an ICT class, a researcher might study whether there’s a relationship between how many hours students spend practicing coding at home and their performance in coding tests. 

  • They might find that the more hours spent practicing, the better the test results. 

  • However, just because the two are connected, it doesn’t mean that practicing coding directly causes better test scores—other factors might also be at play.

3.5.4 Descriptive Research 

• Descriptive research represents the current conditions of the topic under investigation without trying to change or manipulate them. 

• These studies summarize existing phenomena by using numbers to describe groups or individuals.

  • For example, in ICT, a descriptive study might look at how many students in a school are using computers or smartphones for their homework. 

  • It would simply gather data, like how many students use these devices and how often, without trying to change how they use them. 

  • This helps us understand the current situation.

3.6 Mixed‑Methods Research

For a long time, there was a divide between two ways of doing research: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative research focuses on understanding experiences and feelings, often through interviews or observations, while quantitative research looks at numbers and statistics to analyze data. The debate was about which method was better.

Recently, a new approach called mixed-methods research has become more popular. This approach combines both qualitative and quantitative methods in one study. It tries to break the boundary between the two approaches by blending them together to get a more complete understanding of a topic. 

For example, a study might use both surveys (quantitative) and interviews (qualitative) to gather different types of data.

3.6.1 Assumptions about School Reality 

• Focuses on solving real problems (pragmatic) in schools rather than debating abstract ideas about what schools should be like. 
• This approach is practical and uses different methods—both numbers (quantitative) and descriptions (qualitative)—to understand and fix these issues.
• The main idea is to focus on finding solutions that actually work and judging their value based on results. 
• Instead of getting stuck on personal beliefs or big theories, the research focuses on the specific problem and how to solve it effectively.
• For example, if students are struggling to stay engaged in online classes, the research would focus on practical solutions like improving interactive tools or teaching methods, rather than discussing the broader philosophy of online education.

3.6.2 Research Purpose

• The goal of mixed-methods research is to draw on the strength of both quantitative and qualitative research to enhance school improvement. 
• Combining both techniques in a single study enables the researcher to use multiple methods to explore different aspects of the same question.

3.6.3 Researcher Role

• The two paradigms, quantitative and qualitative, can live peacefully together in one study. 
• The researcher can assume an objective or subjective stance, or attitude, depending on the question under investigation.
• The goal of mixed-methods research is to draw on the strength of both quantitative and qualitative research to enhance school improvement. 
• Combining both techniques in a single study enables the researcher to use multiple methods to explore different aspects of the same question.

3.6.4 Research Process

• The researcher employs both quantitative and qualitative data collection strategies, methods, and analyses, either simultaneously or sequentially. 
• Thus, the different data tools that are used complement each other by highlighting different aspects of the same question. 
• The workability of the methods and the usefulness of the results are the most important factor in planning the study.

3.7 Common Mixed Methods

3.7.1 Embedded‑Design Research

• Embedded-design research is used in studies in which both methods of data collection, quantitative and qualitative, are included, but one paradigm dominates the study. 
• One approach is nested within the larger method of data collection. 
• Either the nested or the dominating approach may be qualitative or quantitative. 

  • For example, in an ICT study aimed at testing the impact of a new coding app on students' Python programming skills, the primary method could be a quantitative pretest-posttest experiment to measure improvement in coding scores. 

  • Alongside this, a qualitative survey or interview with a few selected students could be conducted to understand their experiences and opinions about using the app.

3.7.2 Two-Phase Research

• Two-phase research addresses different questions within the research problem in a two-phase study. 
• The qualitative and quantitative methods are employed separately, simultaneously, or sequentially, without much mixing, to investigate each of these questions. 
  • For example, introducing a new learning management system (LMS) affects students' learning in coding classes.

1. Phase 1 (Qualitative): Gather feedback by conducting interviews with students and teachers about their experiences using the LMS, such as how easy or hard it is to navigate.

2. Phase 2 (Quantitative): Analyze students’ coding test scores before and after using the LMS to measure its impact on their performance.

3.7.3 Integrated Research

• Integrated research is a way of combining two types of methods—quantitative (using numbers) and qualitative (using words or descriptions)—to answer the same question. 

• These methods are used at the same time (concurrently), and both are considered equally important.

• For example, to find out how students feel about using a new coding platform, like Python on an LMS (Learning Management System).

1. Quantitative Method: Create a survey with questions like:

   • "Rate your experience using the LMS on a scale of 1 to 5."
     This gives you numerical data.

2. Qualitative Method: The survey also includes open-ended questions like:

   • "What do you like or dislike about using the LMS for coding?"
     This gives you descriptive data.

3. Observation: While students work on their coding tasks, you:

   • Use a checklist to note how often students ask for help (numerical).

   • Write down general observations about how they interact with the platform (descriptive).

By combining these methods, you can get a fuller picture of how effective the LMS is and how students feel about it.

3.8 Characteristics of Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed-Methods Approaches

3.9 Choosing an Approach for Your Research Project

There are three main educational research approaches—qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. These approaches offer distinctly different ways of understanding school realities, leading to different methods and strategies for inquiry.

Action research incorporates elements from all three paradigms. Each approach has its strengths, and none is inherently “right” or “wrong.” Each has contributed to the growth of practitioner knowledge and understanding.

However, these approaches differ in several important ways:

1. They focus on different types of questions or problems.

2. They aim for different kinds of findings.

3. They use different strategies for data collection and analysis.

4. They are evaluated using different criteria.

Before starting your own project, you need to decide which of these three approaches will best suit your study. To make this decision, consider:

• The framework of action research you want to adopt.

• Your personal worldview and how it aligns with the research method.

• The specific research question(s) you want to explore.

By reflecting on these factors, you can select the approach that aligns best with your goals and provides meaningful insights.

3.9.1 Action Research Framework

• The inherent nature of action research affects the methods you choose for your investigation.

• As mentioned before, action researchers study their work, and the study’s findings contribute directly and immediately to their practices. 

• Thus, the purposes of the study they undertake, as well as the methods they choose for their investigations, are influenced by the possibilities and limitations of conducting research in their own classrooms and schools. 

• For action researchers, the focus is most likely not on whether the inquiry’s findings can be generalized to other settings but rather on whether the findings can be useful for improving their own practice. 

• Action researchers are therefore advised to conduct studies to explore and seek change within their local settings, classrooms, schools, and communities.

3.9.2 Personal Worldview

What is Personal Worldview?

• • We all have unique views about school and how research affects our teaching.

  • These views often influence how we plan and carry out our studies.

  • These views are usually unconscious and unspoken.

Importance of Self-Awareness

• • As a teacher, it’s important to become aware of your hidden beliefs about school.

  • These beliefs affect your choices during the research process.

Why It Matters

• • Being aware of your personal worldview helps in making better research decisions.

  • It ensures that your choices reflect your values and professional goals.

3.9.3 Research Question

Importance of the Research Question

• • The type of research method should match the research question or problem you want to solve.

Types of Questions and Methods

Evaluating Student Learning:

• If the question is about evaluating students' learning from a new strategy, numerical test scores may be helpful.

Understanding Attitudes and Feelings:

• If the question focuses on students' attitudes and motivation, in-depth interviews might be a better approach.

Understanding Perceptions and Achievement:

• • If you're exploring students' perceptions of a new strategy and its impact on academic achievement, a mixed-methods approach might be ideal.

Brainstorming for Method Selection

• It’s helpful to brainstorm with others and reflect on the action research framework, personal worldview, and research question to guide the method choice.

• Using a checklist can also aid in decision-making.

A checklist of questions to guide the choice of a research approach

Key Points

1. Wide Range of Educational Research Approaches in Action Research

• Action research draws from various educational research approaches and is implemented in different forms.

2. Assumptions and Beliefs Shaping Educational Research

• Different approaches to educational research are based on alternative assumptions and beliefs about knowledge, school reality, and the purpose of research.

3. Clarifying Assumptions to Shape Inquiry and Data Collection

• Clarifying underlying assumptions helps in developing the inquiry, selecting questions, and choosing data collection and analysis techniques.

4. Three Common Research Paradigms in Education

• The three main research paradigms are quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods.

5. Discussion of Research Paradigms

• Each research paradigm is explained in terms of:

  • Assumptions about school reality

  • Research purpose

  • The researcher role

  • Research processes

  • Common research methods

6. Qualitative Research Methods

• Common methods in qualitative research include:

  • Case study

  • Ethnographic research

  • Narrative research

  • Critical research

7. Quantitative Research Methods

• Common methods in quantitative research include:

  • Experimental research

  • Casual-comparative (ex post facto) research

  • Correlational research

  • Descriptive research

8. Mixed-Methods Research Methods

• Common methods in mixed-methods research include:

  • Embedded design

  • Two-phase research

  • Integrated research

9. Differences Between Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed-Methods Approaches

• These approaches differ in:

  • The kinds of questions they address

  • The types of findings they seek

  • The strategies they use

  • The criteria for assessment

10. Considerations for Choosing a Research Method

• Action researchers should consider their action research framework, personal worldview, and research questions when selecting a method.

11. Focus of Action Research Findings

• For action researchers, the focus is on the usefulness of findings for improving practice, rather than generalizing to other settings.

12. Awareness of Assumptions in the Research Process

• Action researchers must be aware of the tacit assumptions shaping their perspectives on school reality and guiding their decisions in the research process.

13. Influence of Classroom Context on Action Research

• The purposes and methods of action research are influenced by the possibilities and limitations of conducting research in the practitioner’s own classrooms and schools.

14. Research Approach Matching the Research Questions

• The research approach should align with the questions being asked, as the research questions determine the methodology.

Questions

1. Clarify your own assumptions or deliberate with peers or colleagues the following points.

a. The nature of school reality

b. The purpose of conducting research

c. The researcher role

d. The research processes

       If working with a group, you may want to compare and contrast your different perspectives.

2. Reflect on the qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods research approaches discussed in the chapter.

a. Deliberate on the strengths and weaknesses of each of these approaches.

b. Consider the relations that these perspectives have to your personal experience as a teacher (or as a learner).

c. What research approach seems to be most feasible in your current or future educational settings and why?

3. As discussed in the chapter, each research approach—qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods—offers several research methods (e.g., case study, experimental research, and integrated research). Depending on your choice of research approach, which method would be most appropriate for exploring your study’s question(s)? Explain your choice.

4. Look for one or more published studies that discuss a topic relevant to your research project, and answer the following:

a. Identify which research approach was used in the study—qualitative, quantitative, or mixed method?

b. Which of the common research method(s) within the qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods approaches does each of the studies reflect?

c. How does the study question reflect the approach chosen by the writer(s) of each of the chosen studies?

5. Revisit the research question(s) you have developed for your study. Consider whether the research approach matches your questions.