Chapter 2: Choosing and Learning about Your Research Topic

A research process starts by identifying the topic of your choice and becoming knowledgeable about it.

Identify an area of interest

• Think about what you want to change, improve, or understand better in your classroom or school.

• Consider questions, puzzles, or problems you face in teaching or student behavior.

• Reflect on your daily practice to identify any issues you want to explore.

Choose a meaningful topic

• Pick something that matters to your work and is worth the time you’ll spend on it.

• Make sure it will help your personal and professional growth.

• Be realistic: Choose a topic that you can manage with the time and resources available.

Examples of research problems

• Advantages and disadvantages of year-round schooling.

• How second-grade students handle social conflict.

• Impact of inclusion on English language learners.

• Integrating differentiated instruction into a language arts classroom.

Brainstorming with a partner/group

• Work with others to refine your topic and clarify your research focus.

• Ask each other questions to make the topic more focused and specific.

Steps to choose your topic

1. Write down a list of issues that interest you.

2. Review and prioritize them.

3. Choose the one you feel most passionate about.

4. Share your choice with your group, explaining:

• Why it’s important to you.

• How it will help your students.

• How it will benefit others (e.g., peers, parents, the education field).

• What obstacles you might face (e.g., time, resources).

Do some research

• Look for general information about your topic to help you make a well-informed decision on your study.

2.1 Framing the Research Problem Statement

The problem statement (often referred to as “the general statement of the problem”) serves as an introduction to the research and will guide the direction of the study. The problem statement presents a clear purpose for the study. For example:

1. The study is designed to explore the effects of a problem-solving mathematics curriculum on second-grade students’ motivation and success in mastering basic math functions.

2. The purpose of the study is to investigate how a democratic classroom influences students’ behavior in class.

The purpose of the study may consist of several research questions. These questions can be further divided into several subquestions. To make the study manageable, it is suggested to limit to no more than three to five subquestions. In addition, the problem statement usually includes the following:

1. Definitions of the central concepts and terms that may not be familiar to the reader. For example, define the terms problem-solving curriculum or democratic classroom.

2. A description of the personal and professional context for the study. A situation or concern that motivated the choice of the topic may be described.

3. An explanation of the role in the study. For example, clarify if the teacher in the classroom where the study will be conducted.

4. An examination of who, besides the researcher, might be interested in the study and who will benefit from the knowledge gained. For example, peers, colleagues, parents, and policymakers.

2.1.2 Schematic Representation of Purpose, Research Questions, and Subquestions.

For example, Dorji, a higher secondary school ICT teacher, is interested in exploring the best ways to implement differentiated instruction in his classroom. 

Here are some practical suggestions that you may consider as you write your study’s problem statement:

1. Have a clear rationale for conducting your study.

2. Narrow your broad topic of interest to a more refined focus. For example, “How successful is inclusion in my class?” may be changed to “How do regular education students relate to students with special needs in my classroom?”

3. Choose an issue that you can explore within the limited time and resources that you have.

4. Choose a topic that is not too obscure or new to enable you to locate a sufficient number of research articles on your topic.

5. Choose a research question that does not call for simple yes or no answers.

2.1.3 A Checklist to Guide the Self-evaluation of the Research Problem Statement

Collaborating with others or a partner can help refine and improve problem statements. The figure below provides a quick checklist to assess the research problem statement. 

2.2 Developing the Literature Review

Linking Theory to Practice

• Action researchers aim to link theory to practice and connect what happens in

educational settings with the broader knowledge about teaching and learning.

What is a Literature Review?

• A literature review is a summary of existing research related to the topic.

• It combines ideas and research from various sources to help understand the study's background and context.

Importance of a Literature Review

• Helps clarify the study's purpose and importance.

• Provides a foundation for the research question.

• Can help refine or focus the research purpose.

Sources for Literature Review

• Peer-reviewed journal articles, books, conference papers, institutional publications, media reports, and online documents.

Debate on Timing for Literature Review

• Some researchers believe reviewing literature before data collection can cause bias, but many see it as helpful for refining the study.

Benefits of Reviewing the Literature

• Places the research within an existing knowledge base.

• Traces key themes and debates.

• Situates the study in a historical or theoretical context.

• Identifies the need for the research.

• Helps to choose methods and procedures.

• Refines the research question.

Revisiting the Literature

• After completing the study, comparing findings with past research helps refine understanding.

• Literature review continues to evolve as new research is added.

Steps for Writing the Literature Review

1. Locate sources for the literature review

2. Read and identify themes

3. Create a literature review outlinestep 

4. Writing the literature Review

2.2.1 Locate sources for the literature review

Gather Background Information

• Use Internet search engines to locate information quickly but verify credibility.

• Prefer peer-reviewed sources like academic journals, professional books, and conference presentations.

• Use primary sources (original research) over secondary sources (summaries of others' work).

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

• Primary Source: Original research by the researcher (e.g., Gort, 2006).

• Secondary Source: Summaries or overviews of primary sources (e.g., Brisk, 2011).

• Limitation of Secondary Sources: Reliance on citations without direct access to the original data.

Electronic Databases

• Examples: ERIC, EBSCO Host, ProQuest, JSTOR.

• Access databases via university libraries for free full-text articles.

• Prioritize articles published in the last 10 years but include seminal works if relevant.

Search Preparation

1. Transform the problem statement into library search terms.

2. Use keywords and descriptors relevant to your topic.

3. Refer to tools like the ERIC thesaurus to refine keywords.

Suggested Search Steps

1. Identify central terms and concepts; create a list of keywords.

2. Develop a list of synonyms for the keywords.

3. Rank keywords by importance.

4. Conduct a search starting with the most critical keywords; refine with Boolean commands:

   • “AND” narrows the search.

   • “OR” broadens the search.

5. Examine references cited in relevant articles for additional resources.

Evaluating Articles

• Ensure articles are:

  • Relevant to your topic.

  • Peer-reviewed.

  • Published within the last 10 years (older works acceptable if significant).

  • Covering theoretical frameworks or research studies.

  • Presenting various viewpoints for controversial issues.

Review Scope and Relevance

• Aim for a comprehensive review without being overwhelming.

• Collect more articles than required to filter the most relevant ones.

• Adapt articles that do not exactly match your focus by applying findings to your context.

Tips for Efficient Reviewing

• Skim abstracts and articles to assess relevance quickly.

• Include articles addressing:

  • Related theories or frameworks.

  • Diverse positions if the topic is debatable.

• If resources on your exact focus are unavailable, use the closest matches and adapt findings creatively.

2.2.2 Read and identify themes

Key Concepts:

• Purpose of Reading:
  Read research articles differently by focusing only on the parts related to your study.

• Identify Themes:
  Look for recurring ideas, approaches, or findings in the literature that are important to your investigation. These themes guide your writing.

• Support with Evidence:
  Use references from articles to back up your themes and arguments.

• Organize Logically:
  Arrange your themes in a clear, logical order using headings for clarity.

• Use Tools for Tracking:
  Use software like Endnote® or create maps and matrices to organize your sources and themes.

Step-by-Step Explanation:

1. Skim for Key Information:

   • Quickly go through articles to get an overview.

   • Mark important sections relevant to your research.

2. Re-read for Themes:

   • Read marked sections slowly to identify recurring themes.

   • Write down these themes in the margins.

3. Take Notes for Each Article:

   • Summarize the themes in an “index card” (electronic or physical).

   • Include the full citation, web address, and retrieval date if sourced online.

4. Describe Themes in Detail:

   • Write more details for themes that are highly relevant to your topic.

   • Note different perspectives or findings from various authors.

5. Critically Evaluate Sources:

   • Analyze the research methodology and findings.

   • Check definitions, settings, participants, data collection methods, and validity.

6. Quote Accurately:

   • If a statement is strong or unique, quote it precisely.

   • Always include the page number and publication details.

7. Be Meticulous:

   • Stay organized and thorough.

   • Track agreements, disagreements, or contrasting perspectives between authors.

Simple Concepts to Remember:

• Focus only on the parts of articles that relate to your study.

• Organize your findings into themes rather than summarizing articles one by one.

• Use tools or templates to keep your research systematic.

• Back up every theme with evidence and cite your sources correctly.

• Think critically about the quality and relevance of each article.

Article Thematic Review Template

2.2.3. Create a literature review outline

Read and Identify Themes:

• Go through all the articles you’ve collected and look for common themes or ideas.

• Write down the themes that appear in multiple articles.

Organize Themes into an Outline:

• Use a theme organizer to group similar themes and remove irrelevant ones.

• Turn these themes into topics and subtopics for your literature review.

• Example: If researching homework, themes could include "historical role," "current debates," and "teacher/student perspectives."

Record Authors and Years:

• Next to each theme, write down the names of the authors and the years their articles were published.

• This helps you keep track of sources for citations.

Compare and Contrast Themes:

• Look at how different authors agree or disagree on the same topic.

• Highlight similarities, differences, and multiple viewpoints.

Decide on Logical Order:

• Decide on the logical order of your themes and subthemes. 

• The rule of thumb in constructing the literature review outline is that issues least related to your own research focus are discussed first and the most related are discussed last.

• Organize the themes and subthemes in a way that makes sense. Common approaches include:

  • General to Specific: Start with broad ideas, then narrow down.

  • Historical to Contemporary: Begin with older ideas and move to modern ones.

  • Theory to Practice: Discuss theoretical ideas before practical applications.

Visual Mapping (Optional):

• If you prefer visual aids, create a topic map.

• A topic map shows the central theme and related subtopics connected visually.

• Example: A map for "Cooperative Learning in Special Education" might link benefits for students to classroom methods.

Prepare to Write:

• Use your outline or topic map to write the literature review as a structured essay.

• The topics and subtopics from your outline can become section headings in your review.

Tips for Writing:

• Start with topics less related to your research and move to the most related ones.

• Follow a logical flow to keep the narrative clear and easy to read.

• Use your outline to stay organized and avoid missing key points.

This process ensures your literature review is well-structured, clear, and relevant to your research focus!

Literature Review Theme Organizer

Example of Literature Map

2.2.4. Writing the literature Review

Evidence-Based: Avoid personal opinions. Base every argument on credible studies.

Critical Thinking: Don’t accept findings blindly. Evaluate studies for their strengths and weaknesses.

There is no single format for writing a literature review, and the structure generally emerges from the nature of the particular literature that is reviewed. However, there are usually three main sections: (1) an introduction, (2) the main section of the review, and (3) a summary and concluding remarks that end with the specific research question(s).

1. Writing the Introduction

• In the introduction of the literature review, you can use a simple outline to organize and present the topics you will discuss. 

• Explain and define any important terms unless they have already been clarified in the problem statement section. 

2. Main Section of the Literature Review

• Organize by Themes: In the main part of your review, group your discussion into themes or topics. Discuss each subtopic by presenting the relevant theories or studies.

• Start with a Theme: Introduce each theme or idea briefly, and then support it with references. For example, if studying moral education in classrooms, begin by stating its importance, then cite sources that back this claim.

• Detailed Analysis of Key Studies: If a study is very relevant to your research, go into more detail about it. For example, when reviewing moral education, you may spend more time explaining a specific approach, like care ethics, and discuss the works of important authors like Nel Noddings.

• Use Transitional Phrases: To help readers follow your ideas, use connecting words like "in addition," "similarly," or "however" between different points and sections. These show how the studies and ideas relate to each other.

• Point Out Agreements or Gaps: Highlight where studies agree, disagree, or have gaps. You can use phrases like "by comparison" or "contrary to findings by X" to show different viewpoints.

• Summarize Common Ideas: When multiple authors agree on something, mention it once and cite all the authors. If one author adds new information, explain the common points first, then add their unique contribution.

• Cite Sources Properly: Use a proper format, like APA, for citations. Don't just quote a lot—use quotes only when necessary to highlight important ideas. Always include the page number when quoting directly. When paraphrasing, cite the source but don’t need to include page numbers.

3. A summary and concluding remarks

Summary of Reviewed Studies

• 1. 1. 1. • Conclude your literature review by summarizing the main points from the studies you have examined. This section should encapsulate the key findings and insights from the research.

Analysis of Strengths, Weaknesses, and Implications

• 1. 1. 1. • Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the studies reviewed, highlighting any new practices, ideas, or approaches that may benefit your own research. This is an opportunity to reflect on what has been learned and how it could inform your work.

Identifying Gaps and Unanswered Questions

• 1. 1. 1. • Address any gaps in the current knowledge or unanswered questions in the field. Acknowledge areas where research is lacking, and explain how these gaps underscore the necessity of your own study.

Justification for Your Research

• 1. 1. 1. • Conclude by justifying the importance of your research questions. For example, you might state, "Previous studies have focused on problem-solving skills, but there is limited understanding of how high school students apply these skills in history lessons. This study will address these questions."
             Alternatively, you could write, "While many studies investigate school recess, few examine how children feel about it. My research will explore this aspect."

Here are a few other suggestions for writing the literature review:

1. The literature review is focused on summarizing and discussing studies done by others. While you can give your opinions and critique these studies, the review should not be just your personal opinion or editorial.

2. Every idea in your review should be credited to the original author, using a citation that includes the author's last name and the year of publication.

3. To avoid plagiarism, always give credit to the original authors for the ideas and arguments you present instead of claiming them as your own.

4. Every source you cite in your review should also be listed fully in the reference section at the end of your paper. Do not include references that you haven’t mentioned in the review.

5. Use a standard citation style like APA. 

6. When using abbreviations for the first time, write out the full term and put the abbreviation in parentheses. After that, you can use the abbreviation. 

It is a good idea to have another “set of eyes” read the first draft of your literature review. Someone unfamiliar with your topic will be able to point out grammatical errors, confusing statements, missing but necessary explanations, and any weakness in the organization of your paper. A checklist of questions for assessing the literature can help critically review the literature review. 

A checklist of questions for assessing the literature review.

1. Is there an introduction to the review that indicates how the literature review is organized?

2. Is the organization of the literature review clear?

3. Is the literature review organized around themes?

4. Do the ideas flow logically and smoothly from one paragraph to the next?

5. Are there transitions between topics and from topics to subtopics?

6. Are the ideas presented in the context of relevant research and theory?

7. Are different or contrasting positions on the topic reported?

8. Are the ideas and arguments supported and properly referenced?

9. Does the literature review adhere to APA writing standards?

10. Are the quotations properly used and the page numbers of quotations indicated?

11. Does the review end with a meaningful summary of the main ideas discussed?

2.3 Formulating Specific Research Question(s)

Broad Focus: Start with a general problem statement that defines the purpose of your study.

Refining Questions: Use what you’ve learned to narrow down and make your research questions more specific.

Specific Research Questions: Clearly describe what you want to investigate by turning the general statement into focused questions.

Formulation: A good research question should be clear, specific, and researchable.

Methods: The way you frame your research questions determines if your study will use qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods.

2.3.1 Qualitative Research Questions

Are open-ended and often use "how" and "what" rather than yes/no questions. The questions should focus on who or what is being studied. Common research areas include:

• Individuals or groups (e.g., students, teachers, administrators)

• Actions, interactions, behaviors, attitudes, and feelings

• Curricula, programs, and teaching strategies

• Personal values, beliefs, and educational philosophies and their impact on practice

Examples of qualitative research questions:

1. How do my preschool students resolve problems on the playground during recess time?

2. What are the social and emotional impacts of standardized testing on the students in my school?

Qualitative research is flexible, so research questions can be refined or changed as the study progresses.

2.3.2 Quantitative Action Research 

• involves measuring variables that can be counted or quantified.

• Research questions are specific and often ask “how much” or “how many.”

• These questions are usually followed by hypotheses (predictions about study outcomes).

• Hypotheses should be observable and testable.

  • Avoid vague terms like "good" or "important" because they can’t be measured.

• In research, we confirm hypotheses, not "prove" them, as there is always some margin of error.

• The focus is on a limited number of variables being tested.

Examples of research questions:

1. Is there a correlation between students’ math and science test scores?

2. What is the impact of using technology in the classroom on student test performance?

2.3.3 Questions in Mixed-Methods Action Research 

1. Mixed-Methods Approach: Combines qualitative (descriptive, detailed) and quantitative (numerical) data.

2. Purpose: Each research question focuses on a different type of data collection.

Examples:

1. Effectiveness of Differentiated Instruction (4th Grade Math)

   • Qualitative Question: How do students perceive the value of differentiated instruction? (Interviews)

   • Quantitative Question: Is there an improvement in end-of-unit test scores? (Test scores)

2. Peer-Mentoring Program for At-Risk High School Students

   • Qualitative Question: How do at-risk students feel about their motivation to complete homework and participate in class? (Observations and interviews)

   • Quantitative Question: Is there an improvement in attendance and a decrease in behavior problems? (Attendance and referral data)

This approach helps address both the "why" and "what" aspects of the research problem.

2.3.4 Writing Research Questions

• Start with a General Topic
  Example: Bullying in elementary schools.

• Narrow Down to a Problem Statement
  Focus on specific aspects, such as cyberbullying.

• Conduct a Literature Review
  Refine the problem statement based on existing research.

• Develop a Specific Research Question
  Example: How does role-playing impact bullying in a fifth-grade classroom?

• Formulate a Hypothesis (for Quantitative Studies)
  Example: Cyberbullying incidents will reduce after a role-playing intervention.

• Choose a Research Paradigm

  • Qualitative: Focuses on understanding experiences and meanings.

  • Quantitative: Involves measurable data and testing hypotheses.

  • Mixed-Methods: Combines qualitative and quantitative approaches.

• Create Research Questions Based on Paradigm

  • Qualitative: Open-ended, exploring "how" or "why."

  • Quantitative: Specific, measurable, and hypothesis-driven.

  • Mixed-Methods: Integrates both qualitative and quantitative elements.

• Follow a Structured Process
  General topic → Problem statement → Literature review → Specific research question → Methodological approach.

The process of moving from a general topic to the specific research question and hypothesis.

General research topic, problem statement, qualitative research question, quantitative research question and hypothesis, and mixed-methods research question.

Key Points

1. Identifying a Meaningful Research Area

   • The first step in the teacher research process is to identify a meaningful area of interest that is significant for the action researcher's work; the classroom and school are the best sources for research questions, puzzles, and problems.

2. Collaborative Brainstorming

   • Brainstorming with a partner or in a small group often helps action researchers choose a meaningful topic for their study and clarify its focus.

3. Crafting the Research Problem Statement

   • The research problem statement (often referred to as “the general statement of the problem”) presents a clear purpose for the study, serves as an introduction to the research, and guides the direction of the study.

4. Components of the Problem Statement

   • The problem statement often includes definitions of the central concepts and terms, a description of the personal and professional context for the study, an explanation of the researcher’s role, an examination of who might be interested in the study, and a description of who will benefit from the knowledge gained.

5. Divergence of Research Paradigms

   • Although qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods researchers may start with the same general research topic and problem statement, their research questions and approaches differ, reflecting their chosen paradigm.

6. Formulating Research Questions and Subquestions

   • The purpose for the study may consist of several research questions, which can be further divided into subquestions.

7. Understanding the Literature Review

   • A literature review is a summary and synthesis of research put forward by others that is pertinent to the researcher’s inquiry; it establishes the rationale for the study by highlighting the importance of the research question.

8. Sources for Literature Review

   • Sources for the literature review include peer-reviewed journal articles, professional books, conference papers, institutional publications, media reports, and documents found on websites.

9. Steps for Preparing a Literature Review

   • The process includes locating sources, reading literature to identify themes, and constructing a literature review outline.

10. Primary vs. Secondary Sources

    • When possible, use primary sources (original research descriptions) rather than secondary sources (summaries or analyses of others' work).

11. Transforming Problem Statements into Search Terms

    • Before beginning your library search, transform the problem statement into search terms (descriptors) by defining your research focus and specific issues.

12. Organizing Themes in Literature Reviews

    • The literature review is organized around themes pertinent to the investigation, typically comprising perspectives, approaches, ideas, or results from existing studies.

13. Outline Styles for Literature Review

    • The outline can be written in a narrative style or as a series of bullets.

14. Logical Organization of the Review

    • The review should progress from least related to most related topics, general to specific, historical to contemporary, theory to practice, and definitions to examples.

15. Using Visual Mapping

    • Visual mapping is an effective way to graphically organize and display the topics and subtopics of the literature review.

16. Structure of the Literature Review

    • A literature review typically includes three sections: (a) an introduction, (b) the main section, and (c) a summary and concluding remarks.

17. Introduction to the Literature Review

    • The introduction may include an advanced organizer to preview the topics being discussed.

18. Thematic Organization of the Main Section

    • The main section follows the outline structure and is organized thematically, with the length of each discussion depending on its relevance to the study.

19. Synthesizing Studies

    • Communicate how the studies fit together, highlighting controversies, agreements, and disagreements among researchers.

20. Providing Closure to the Review

    • Write a short summary reviewing the major themes across studies and highlighting their implications.

21. Defining Specific Research Questions

    • A specific research question begins with a precise description of the investigation’s goals, translating the general problem statement into focused questions.

22. Qualitative Research Questions

    • Qualitative research questions are open-ended, using words like how and what, avoiding yes or no answers.

23. Quantitative Research Questions

    • Quantitative research questions involve measuring variables and assessing “how much” or “how many,” often followed by hypotheses in experimental studies.

24. Research Questions in Mixed-Methods Studies

    • Mixed-methods research often involves several specific research questions, each requiring different forms of data (qualitative or quantitative).

Questions

1. Write two or three possible topics for your investigation and explain briefly why they are of interest to you. Follow the steps outlined at the beginning of the chapter to make a final choice of topic for your study.

2. Develop an outline of your literature review using the format or create a visual topic map.

3. Choose a topic of interest for a study and develop three research questions for exploring the topic: one research question to be based on the qualitative approach, another on quantitative approach, and the third on the mixed-methods approach. Compare and contrast the three questions you have written and suggest how each one will guide your choice of data collection tools. If working with a group or a peer, choose a topic of mutual interest. (You may find the example in Figure, General research topic, problem statement, qualitative research question, quantitative research question and hypothesis, and mixed-methods research question.)