Principles of training

Progressive Overload

Progressive overload is when the workload for a training session progressively increases as the athlete adapts to training. This increase in workload is usually done to maintain the same intensity of training after the adaptations have occurred.

For aerobic training progressive overload requires that the workload is increased. This increase can come with an increase in speed or duration of the training. If an athlete has been training for soccer by doing a 80% HRM treadmill run at 2⁰ incline, at 16Km/h for 45 min 4 times a week, then the athlete will adapt to this training and eventually it will become easier for them and then decreases to 75% HRM. This requires an adjustment in training so that training is still at 80% HRM and still producing a stress that can cause further adaptation, this is termed progressive overload. Progressive overload could be done by: increasing the incline, increasing the speed or the duration could be increased, though the duration will not increase the stress on the body very much.

For resistance training progressive overload requires that the workload is increased. This increase can come as an increase in resistance, reps, or sets. Alternatively the rest period between sets can be reduced. So if an athlete is training for rugby league by doing 3 sets lifting 110Kg, which is their 12RM with a 2 min rest between sets, this training will produce an adaptation in the athlete so that they can now bench 100Kg 16 times and so it is no longer their 12RM, but their 16RM. The athlete will no longer adapt, unless the principle of progressive overload is used changing the load in order to place a sufficient stress upon the body to cause further adaptations. This increase in workload could be done by getting the athlete to complete 5 sets (though this is time consuming), increasing the weight to 120Kg, which might be his new 12RM, or decreasing the rest period to 1 minute between sets. The best way to use progressive overload in resistance training is to increase the resistance by increasing the weight; this results in improvements in strength, as well as developing recovery times and muscular endurance.

Specificity

The principle of specificity means that adaptations to training are specific to the training. Specificity applies to the muscle group trained, the speed of training, the intensity of training, the movements of training and the energy systems utilised. Specificity is that physiological adaptations only occur in response to the stress placed on the body and only to the sections that experience this stress.

Specificity means if you participate in an aerobic sport such as marathon running, you need to do aerobic training that involves running so that your adaptations improve your performance in that sport. Training should be done at a pace and in an environment that best replicates competition in order to get the best specific gains or adaptations for competition. Continuous training, such as running outside, becomes the best method because it specifically reflects the marathon sport.

Specificity when applied to resistance training requires that the muscle groups used in the sport are the ones trained. Training should also seek to replicate similar movements from the sport at a similar speed. Strength training for swimming would then use a lat pull-down to replicate the pulling movement of swimming, at the most efficient swimming movement speed to increase strength at that speed for that movement in swimming.

Reversibility

Reversibility is the fact that when training stops the adaptations made are lost. Adaptations are generally lost at a similar rate to which they were gained. So if an athlete has put on 10Kg of muscle in 1 month, then gets injured they will lose the muscle very quickly. However, if the athlete as developed that muscle slowly over 6 months or maintained their muscle gain for 6 months then the loss occurs at a slower rate. The more adaptations that have happened the more you have to lose. So elite level athletes tend to lose more than a recreational athlete because they have more to lose. Athletes need to avoid the reversibility that will occur if training ceases. Training can cease for multiple reasons, the two main reasons are: injury and the end of a season. Reversibility can be avoided by maintaining some level of training during the off-season or when injured. This is more problematic for an injured person, but can be achieved by training the uninjured parts of the body while recovering.

For aerobic training the effects of reversibility can be seen 4-6 weeks after training stops. Reversibility can be avoided by maintaining 2 sessions of aerobic training each week.

For resistance training reversibility can normally be seen in 2 weeks. The effects can be avoided by maintaining 1 session a week at the same intensity as previous training.

Variety

The principle of variety is ensuring training sessions use multiple training types and methods, as well as exercises within these methods. Variety is needed in training, not only to prevent boredom, but also to ensure complete and full development of fitness. An example would be for a Rugby League player to use various training types throughout the week, such as aerobic, strength, flexibility and anaerobic training, all of which are needed to play the sport as well as possible. Within these the sessions would use a variety of methods, so that the anaerobic training was not always short interval training, but also included other forms of resistance training, or Plyometrics. Furthermore, interval-training sessions would not always be the same, but would include a variety of exercises. This could include: shuttle runs, repeated tackling for 1 min, followed by a 2 min rest x10, and 20 sec agility runs followed by 40 sec rests x20.

For aerobic training variety would include changes to the training method, between fartlek, circuit, continuous, and aerobic interval. It would also include variations within this training, so that the continuous training was not always doing a 10 km flat run on a treadmill, but included outside runs, or possibly some bike work.

For resistance training variety would mean mixing the training sessions up, using free weights and machine weights and also adding some elastic or hydraulic training as well. I means when you train your chest muscles you would include incline, flat and decline activities to ensure the entire pectoral muscle was trained. You might use hydraulic machines to ensure the gains also occurred at a faster speed of movement.

Training thresholds

Training thresholds refer to the level of intensity needed in order to stress the body enough to cause an adaptation or improvement in performance. Training thresholds are measured by intensity and can be either a % MHR or % VO_2max. %MHR is used most frequently so will be the focus here. There are generally two training thresholds: the aerobic threshold and the anaerobic threshold.

The aerobic threshold is the intensity needed in order to produce an adaptation that will improve someone’s aerobic capacity or VO_2max. The aerobic training threshold is normally between 65% and 70% MHR.

The anaerobic threshold is the intensity needed in order to produce an adaptation that will improve someone’s anaerobic capacity, normally be increasing the speed of lactate removal. The anaerobic training threshold is normally between 80% and 85% MHR.

The intensities between the two thresholds are called the aerobic training zone and include the intensities that should be trained at in order to improve aerobic performance. The higher the training intensity within this zone the greater the adaptations. This is the same for the intensities above the anaerobic training threshold, these are called the anaerobic training zone and the higher the intensity the greater the gains.

Resistance training usually uses repetition maximum to speak about the intensity being used. Within resistance training there are a number of goals that can be achieved and the threshold required varies depending on the goal. Studies suggest that the best maximal strength and power gains can be made using 1-6RM. Training between 8-12RM has been shown to produce significant increases in strength and is the most effective intensity in order to produce muscular hypertrophy. Training between 12-15RM is the best range to significantly improve local muscular endurance. All of this resistance training develops the anaerobic systems, with the higher intensities developing the alactacid system and the lower intensities developing the lactic acid system, though these are not completely isolated from one another. Higher RMs has been shown to be negligible

Warm-up and cool down

A warm up is the process whereby an athlete goes through a range of exercises in order to get their body ready for competition or training. Warm up exercises move from low intensity to high intensity and from general movements to sport specific movements. Warm ups prepare the body for physical activity by: increasing the heart rate, the respiratory rate, the cardiac output, and the blood flow to the muscles being used. It causes the liver to release glucose into the blood and opens muscle cells so that blood glucose can easily enter the muscle for energy production. Warm ups also increase the body temperature, which increases joint mobility, decreases the risk of injury and speeds up the chemical reactions which produce ATP. In warming up a netball player, movements might start with a slow jog, which slowly increases to a fast run. The athlete then might add changing direction to the running, and then introduce a netball for catching and throwing activities, which could begin at slow movements and work up into faster movements. Finally the warm up would include mini games to reproduce the specific movements needed in netball.

ool downs are essentially the opposite of a warm up. They involve movements that help speed up recovery and enable the body to slowly adjust its systems and bring the body back down to rest. These movements move from medium intensities to low intensities and from sport specific movements to general movements. Often a cool down involves passing a ball around, while jogging and progresses to a walk before stretching. The goal of a cool down is to allow the body to remove: left over lactate and pyruvic acid, carbon dioxide and water. This helps prevent fluid pooling in the used muscles, as muscular contraction helps transport blood and the lymphatic system back towards the heart. If the heart continues to pump blood to the muscles being used and the muscles are resting, then the fluid does not return to the heart at the same rate that it arrives, which leads to pooling.

The benefits of stretching in a warm up or cool down are often debated. There is much evidence to suggest that stretching before physical activity does NOT help prevent injury. Dynamic stretching has been shown to be useful in a warm up as it replicates movements that may occur during the physical activity, but these movements should be sport specific. Stretching as part of the cool down helps lengthen the muscle and can assist in avoiding some stiffness experienced after physical activity.

Before aerobic training a warm up should go for 10 min and aim to increase the heart rate to the 70% MHR aerobic threshold slowly. Movements should progress from lower intensities to the higher one and from general movements such as a jog or star jump to more specific movements such as running with a ball at their feet for soccer. Movements could also include a small 5-on-5 mini game. After the physical activity the cool down should go for 5-10 minutes, depending on the duration of the session. Exercises could include a jog around the field passing a ball and then go into some walking in various directions and then some stretching of the leg muscles for the soccer players.

Before resistance training a warm up should go for 10 min and aim to increase blood flow to the group of muscles being used and prepare them for heavy lifting. This preparation is done, not just by doing an aerobic warm up, but also doing the specific movements required throughout the training session. This could include some lightweight bench presses for a chest session, and some push-ups to get the muscles ready to lift the heavier weights.