Louis Maurice Boutet de Monvel (1850-1913) was a French painter and illustrator who rose to international fame with his children’s book telling the life of Joan of Arc (1412-1431). Joan of Arc was a young girl who led France to victories over the English during the Hundred Years War; she was captured and eventually burned at the stake by the English.1 Eventually Boutet de Monvel was offered a commission, which resulted in six oil paintings. While the life that is shown in his six paintings depicts the late medieval Hundred Years War, the style is uniquely Boutet de Monvel’s. Direct knowledge regarding his inspirations and influences is currently lacking, as his studio was taken apart. While there is no clear documentation of his studio, one photo does indeed exist. Within this photo can be seen tapestries and various objects that would be well suited to a cabinet of curiosity. The photo alone is unable to support Boutet de Monvel’s full inspirations. However, scholars have found evidence pointing to several sources of inspiration within his series of paintings that go beyond what is visible. I draw from the scholarship on Boutet de Monvel as well as my own research to develop these distinct influences within this set of six paintings. These inspirations and influences are wide ranging, spanning medieval to modern. There are three commonly accepted inspirations that I will be focusing on within scholarship and in a thorough analysis of the paintings.
The first is Paolo Uccello’s (1397–1475) The Battle of San Romano: The Counter-attack of Micheletto Attendolo da Cotignola (1450/1475) (fig. 1), which exerted a primitivist Renaissance influence on Boutet de Monvel’s military scenes. This is most visible in the third and fourth paintings, which are the only two military paintings in the series. The second source of inspiration is from Japanese ukiyo-e prints. These prints were part of the basis of Japonisme which was a popular style beginning in the mid-1850s due to the influx of Asian goods exported to the West. Asian motifs became popular among vanguard artists, and many of those motifs can be seen in Boutet de Monvel’s paintings. Though some of the motifs seen in his oeuvre are not singularly Japanese, they indicate Japanese inspiration. Another important motif he borrowed distinctly and brilliantly from revolves around medieval brocades. Within at least three of the paintings, heavily brocaded clothes drape the saints, bishops, and many courtiers; paintings showing these brocades would have been available for viewing in the Louvre in Paris. Boutet de Monvel would have had access to these museums during his time studying art as he lived in Orléans, a town near Paris. From these paintings, he could have drawn inspiration from or potentially directly copied the patterns for the courtiers.
Complex and intricate patterning can be seen in medieval brocades and paintings including them. Boutet de Monvel was aware of these and other types of patterns, given his predilection for patterning showcased in prior works. Nos Enfants and Pâte Dentifrice, du Docteur Pierre are two such examples. In Nos Enfants, in the chapter titled “L’École,” one of the full-page images depicts children at their desks in school (fig. 2). They are covered in a variety of plaids, polka dots, and stripes; more contemporary patterns for Boutet de Monvel. Pâte Dentifrice, du Docteur Pierre (fig. 3) is a poster designed by Boutet de Monvel and will be discussed later in more detail in relation to his Japanese influences. It is referenced here as it shows his awareness of Japanese prints and patterning with the cherry blossom wallpaper as the background. His patterning occurs more frequently in his books than in his painting, given his academic training. His mindfulness of other patterns shows he was intentional with his brocade choices in Jeanne d’Arc and in the Joan of Arc sextet of paintings.
Louis Maurice Boutet de Monvel was born on October 18, 1850, in Orléans.2 His family was an artistic one, and he manifested his artistic abilities early on.3 He began his studies with Alexandre Cabanel (1823-1889), a renowned academician, at the École des Beaux Arts prior to the Franco-Prussian war. Like others of his time, he fought in the war, and it left its mark on him, one that he never fully recovered from. He contracted pneumonia during the war, which permanently weakened him and caused him to use heating braziers in his studio.4 Once the war was over, he returned to artistic training, this time with Jules Lefebvre (1836-1911) and Gustave Boulanger (1824-1888), two more academic painters, until he finally settled in 1875 at the studio of Charles Auguste Émile Durand, known as Carolus-Duran (1837-1917), who at the time was teaching and practicing portraiture.5
He exhibited at the Salon under Duran, where a small scandal occurred in 1885. Boutet de Monvel submitted a controversial piece entitled L’Apothéose to the Salon, and it was subsequentially removed at the demand of the government the evening before the Salon opened.6 This incident caused Boutet de Monvel to turn his attention towards children’s illustration, where he had already had some influence and experience. His first work with the magazine Saint Nicolas (1880) was successful, and his advances in children’s literature led him to illustrate several other children’s books. Nos Enfants (1887) was one of his popular works. Additionally, there were several others that gained attention, many of which were songbooks such as Vieilles Chansons (1884) and Chansons de France pour les Petits Français (1884). In 1896, Boutet de Monvel published what is arguably his greatest and most well-known book, Jeanne d’Arc.7 It tells the story of Joan of Arc, from the beginning with her heavenly mission, through her battles and victories, and ends with her death by burning at the stake. The book was a hit globally, being translated into English and published in the United States within the year.8 The book continued to be lauded for its detail and color into the 1980s and beyond; one scholar compared it to a medieval book of hours.9 While the book, and later the paintings, are not in the style of a book of hours—Jeanne d’Arc is oriented horizontally, and it is not meant for routine, daily prayer—the vibrant colors resemble medieval illustrations. The international sensation of Jeanne d’Arc caused great success for Boutet de Monvel, and from this triumph and renown came commissions.
Boutet de Monvel was initially commissioned to paint several scenes for the Church in Domrémy. This was an immense project that the artist was unable to complete, yet the popularity of Jeanne d’Arc in the United States led to a second, separate commission that was completed.10 Senator William A. Clark of the United States Senate commissioned Boutet de Monvel in 1905 to paint a series of six paintings portraying Joan’s life.11 Clark harbored a deep love of France and had done so throughout the late 1870s; his second marriage was to a French woman, and he regularly made trips to France for extended periods.12 Boutet de Monvel accepted the commission in 1905, and the work lasted until 1913, the year of his death. These paintings were his last works, and serve as a testament to his unique skill and style. The scenes of the six paintings are taken directly from the illustrations in the book. They highlight the moments in Joan’s life that help to tell her story most completely. The paintings are: The Vision and Inspiration (1907-1909) (fig. 4), Her Appeal to the Dauphin (1906) (fig. 5), The Maid in Armor on Horseback (1908-1909) (fig. 6), The Turmoil of Conflict (1909-1913) (fig. 7), The Crowning at Rheims of the Dauphin (1907) (fig. 8), and The Trial of Joan of Arc (1909-1910) (fig. 9). They are presented here and through the rest of this paper in a sequence that follows Joan’s life. However, the original order of painting was very different. As Boutet de Monvel was weak and ill, there was a desire for certain pieces to be completed before others. These six oil paintings were originally bequeathed to the Corcoran Gallery by Clark, who had exchanged letters with the Corcoran’s director throughout the paintings’ development. Upon the museum’s closing in 2014, they were acquired by the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., where they are now on display.13
There are a few differences to be found between the book illustrations and the paintings. The most noticeable of these changes is the gilding added to the paintings, and the slight color changes and additions that filled in and expanded the scenes. These involved either the inclusion of more figures or the extension of the present setting and action. Of these shifts in the scenes, The Vision and Inspiration (fig. 4) differs most noticeably from the children’s book. It is not quite a melding of two scenes, but it does combine elements of two original illustrations showing Joan in the fields and meeting Saint Michael. The smaller details that are changed throughout the other five paintings include color choices and patterning, along with minor adjustments and additions of figures. These changes are not enough to cause a new influence to be considered, but they do need to be acknowledged since the paintings are so close to their source material.
The series of paintings by Boutet de Monvel depicts Joan of Arc’s story in a concise manner, beginning with Joan’s visions. The Vision and Inspiration (fig. 4) depicts the vision of Saints Catherine, Margaret, and Michael to Joan. The background is a landscape, with the fields of Domrémy in the distance, and a grove of trees as the center of the scene. Joan kneels with a basket of spinning askew beside her and her sheep at her back. In front of her is what can rightly be called a beatific vision. Saint Michael hovers in the air, with Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret on either side, and all three are surrounded by an aurora like the sun. Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret present a helmet and sword to Joan, while Saint Michael stretches out his arms in what may be a blessing. The heavenly trio is heavily gilded, and Saint Michael wears an entirely golden suit of armor. This first painting is the very beginning of Joan’s story.
The second painting depicting Joan’s life, Her Appeal to the Dauphin (fig. 5), jumps ahead to her identifying the Dauphin, or the eldest son of the King of France.14 The saints had commanded Joan to find the Dauphin, the rightful heir to the throne. He had heard of her mission and attempted to disguise himself as a courtier to test Joan’s truthfulness and resolve. This painting is a canvas full of color and patterns. The scene is a crowded room, likely in a palace given the strip decoration on the walls showing a coat of arms and a monogram. The various lords and ladies of the French court are spectacularly dressed and form a semi-circle around the center, looking at the scene curiously. Joan, dressed now in men’s clothes with short hair, genuflects and point to a man in the plainest outfit present. The Dauphin is dressed in a brilliant blue robe, and he looks down at Joan, meeting her gaze. His attempt at deceit is foiled by the Maid as she correctly identifies the Dauphin without hesitation or aid, thereby earning the respect and belief of those present.
The Maid in Armor on Horseback (fig. 6) shows a military procession. Joan is now arrayed in armor, at the head of her army on her horse, likely heading towards a battle. She is following a procession of monks, most with their hoods up with one holding a crucifix. Joan’s gaze is directed towards the crucifix, and her hands are together in prayer. Behind her is a formation of knights in armor and on horseback. This group is fairly cut off, with the focus clearly being on Joan and the peaceful monks at the head of the procession. Beside Joan is her standard, apparently held by another monk. It is cut off, but the visible part is of two angels kneeling on a cloud, both turned towards something surrounded by a heavenly glow. The background of this scene shows the army under her command; the soldiers closest to this procession are genuflecting with a variety of medieval polearms—glaives, halberds, partizans, pikes—in their hands. In the far background, cavalry and carts are seen moving across the land.
The next scene, The Turmoil of Conflict (fig. 7), shows a great battle, with the clashing armies of the English and the French taking central focus. This painting is charged with energy and dynamism. The polearms seen previously are angled against each other as the two armies collide. The foreground is chaotic at first glance, but after taking time to look there is a rhythm and a flow to the figures and actions. The French army are on horses, the soldiers dressed in full suits of armor with their visors down covering their faces. The English army attacks from below as the horses bear down upon them. Joan is not the central focus here, as she is in the background, leading a second wave of mounted soldiers in a charge. The vibrant colors add to the energy of the scene and capture an intense moment of battle.
The Crowning at Rheims of the Dauphin (fig. 8) is the triumphant composition showing the culmination of Joan’s efforts and her success. The setting inside is likely a church, given the coronation happening at the center. Charles VII is crowned King, draped in a blue ermine-edged cape, genuflecting before the group of bishops as they place the crown on his head. Nobles are gathered around him, and the background is filled by a variety of courtiers and soldiers dressed in colorful garb. The bishops are gilded and resplendent, standing out from the rest of the figures. Joan kneels on the right side of the scene, behind the newly crowned king and his entourage. Her head is bowed, and she holds her standard before her.
The final painting in this sextet, The Trial of Joan of Arc (fig. 9), is the most somber, showing Joan standing against a clerical court that has accused her of heresy. It is the darkest in colors, with a singular, gilded bishop in the upper left corner. This painting shows a room with little action occurring. On the left side and across the background, the walls are covered by seating, with clerics and lawyers sitting in them. On the far right stand a few soldiers and a table with notetakers diligently working. Joan stands alone, slightly to the right of center. She is still dressed in men’s clothes, a blue tunic striking against the neutral colors in the room, and her right arm is raised with her left clutching her chest. Together this selection of six scenes provides a brief summary of Joan’s life once she began her heavenly mission. The influence of Paolo Uccello focuses on two paintings in particular, and that is where I shall begin my analysis.
The inspiration of Paolo Uccello’s Battle of San Romano series is seen most clearly in The Maid in Armor on Horseback (fig. 6) and The Turmoil of Conflict (fig. 7). The Battle of San Romano (figs. 1, 10, 11) is a series of three paintings by Paolo Uccello. They were painted during the Renaissance, sometime between 1450 and 1475. Their relevance to a twentieth- century series depicting Joan of Arc is not immediately clear, but looking at them reveals a potential source of Boutet de Monvel’s works. The Battle of San Romano: The Counter-attack of Micheletto Attendolo da Cotignola (fig. 1) is the third in the trio of Uccello’s paintings. The painting resided in Campana, Italy until it was acquired for the Napoleon III Museum in 1861 by the French State. It officially entered the Louvre in 1863. Although in disrepair and incomplete, with faded colors and damage, the battle scene it depicts is still clearly visible.
It is believed by some observers that Uccello was an inspiration for Boutet de Monvel’s depictions of battle and military scenes. Michael Patrick Hearn notes this potential connection between the Renaissance artist and the modern illustrator. In an article for The Horn Book Magazine in April 1979, he gave a complete review of Boutet de Monvel’s illustrative works. Referring to the Joan of Arc illustrations, he said, “His skirmishes are as skillfully constructed as those of Paolo Uccello....”15 Another review and analysis of his Jeanne d’Arc book by Selma G. Lanes references the Renaissance master in relation to the two-page spread of a fierce battle: “Worthy of Paolo Uccello, it is a panorama of armored soldiers, thrusting lances, and mounted horsemen at full gallop.”16 This particular spread in the book would later be painted as The Turmoil of Conflict (fig. 7). This painting and The Maid in Armor on Horseback (fig. 6) are the two military scenes that are represented in the paintings, taken almost directly from Boutet de Monvel’s book. I find these comparisons by Hearn and Lanes on Boutet de Monvel’s book to be very convincing, though I am presently focusing on his paintings. The slight differences between Boutet de Monvel’s paintings and illustrations are merely his expansion of the scenes to fit a wider horizontal frame and his changing of a few colors and objects in Maid in Armor (fig. 6). From my own observation of both sets of paintings, there is a clear correlation between Uccello’s trio of paintings and Boutet de Monvel’s sextet of paintings.
In Maid in Armor (fig. 6), the eye goes to the spears lined up in the background of the painting. The central figure of Joan is on the left half of the painting, with her standard and knights behind her. The organization of this formation is reminiscent of The Counter-attack of Micheletto Attendolo da Cotignola (fig. 1), in which the leading figure of Niccolò da Tolentino rides his horse as his standard flies above him and his men rally behind him. Joan takes a similar stance in Maid in Armor (fig. 6); her standard above her, with her men mustering behind her, and the sea of spears showing the amount of force behind this little French girl. However, there is little comparison to be found with The Turmoil of Conflict (fig. 7), with some elements of similarity but no direct correlation clearly seen between the two. The Counter-attack of Micheletto is the sole painting from a trio executed by Uccello located in the Louvre and thus the only painting that Boutet de Monvel had direct access to. It is possible that he took inspiration from the other two paintings in this series. Indeed, I believe that there is in fact a closer resemblance to the painting located in Florence at the Uffizi than the one residing in the Louvre.
Prints of famous works of art could easily be distributed and cheaply made, allowing people access to artworks they otherwise might not have seen. If not seen in print reproductions, then famous works could be found in books relevant to their subject. Uccello’s other two paintings within this series, Battle of San Romano (1435-144) (fig. 10) in the Uffizi and Niccolò Mauruzi da Tolentino at the Battle of San Romano (1438-1440) (fig. 11) in the National Gallery London, have very similar resemblances to the painting by Boutet de Monvel of The Turmoil of Conflict. In Boutet de Monvel’s piece, horses charge and spears lunge across the canvas. It is a dynamic piece, full of movement and energy, and the composition of his spears and cavalry reflects Uccello’s. In The Turmoil of Conflict (fig. 7), the horses rear up as they reach the line of polearms angled upwards. The spears, polearms, and standards are all at varying angles, and they are more crowded and less organized than the march shown in Maid on Horseback (fig. 6). Uccello’s horses similarly rear up with some of this crowding visible in his arrangement of figures. This influence by Uccello can be clearly traced to a specific set of paintings. However, the influence or inspiration of brocades is not so easy to trace.
According to David Matthews, an expert in medieval studies, there was a medieval revival in the last third of the eighteenth century.17 While medieval studies have remained significant since the end of the Middle Ages, this revival and its effects carried over into the nineteenth century.18 Medieval brocades are another source of possible inspiration for Boutet de Monvel. Brocade is an art that is based in textiles, specifically woven silks. They were immensely popular among the Italians and the Burgundians by the fourteenth century and into the fifteenth.19 These brocades were signs of status and wealth, indicated by their colors and ornate designs.20 The precise identification of Boutet de Monvel’s patterns and color choices is not currently known, but recognizing his inspiration from these brocades and their depictions is helpful in providing a greater understanding and appreciation of the Joan of Arc paintings. It is currently unclear as to whether he took inspiration in his patterns from medieval brocades directly or from medieval paintings depicting brocades. Regardless, his Joan of Arc paintings are seen as prime examples of medieval clothing and styles.21
Looking at paintings owned by the Louvre and Musée de Beaux-Arts can give insight into the patterns which were available to Boutet de Monvel. Since his patterns changed from the book to the paintings, I will be focusing on the paintings, as they are grander and more embellished in their depictions of garments. A first example of this imitation or inspiration is Rogier van der Weyden’s (1400-1464) The Annunciation (15 th century) (fig. 12) in the Louvre. It was first taken to France from Turin following the war between France and Piedmont, and was then exhibited in the Louvre in 1800.22 This oil on wood painting depicts a traditional northern European scene of the Annunciation, with the Angel Gabriel draped in what appears to be a cope, a liturgical vestment that is worn by clergy at non-Eucharistic functions (fig. 12).23 This vestment can be seen in Boutet de Monvel’s Crowning at Rheims (fig. 8), with the many clergy present arrayed in golden copes. A comparison can be made between Gabriel and the bishops, with their stunning gilded copes. However, the patterning on Gabriel’s cope is best compared to a courtier seen in Appeal to the Dauphin (fig. 5). On the left side of the scene in the foreground is a lady dressed in a beautiful yellow dress. The pattern on her dress appears to be a flower or leaf of some kind, stylized in black with gilded detailing and a thick gilded outline on a pale yellow background. The Angel Gabriel’s cope is patterned similarly, though slightly more simplistically. The background color of his cope is gold, and the pattern is a leaf done in black. Looking at these two details side by side shows the influence that medieval brocades must have had on Boutet de Monvel’s depictions in Joan of Arc.
Another possible comparison is to Jan van Eyck’s The Virgin and Child to Chancellor Rolin (1400-1450) (fig. 13). This piece was seized during a revolution and was given to the Louvre, where it still resides today.24 Another painting from the fifteenth century, The Virgin and Child (fig. 13) has several points of comparison with two of Boutet de Monvel’s paintings, Appeal to the Dauphin (fig. 5) and Crowning at Rheims (fig. 8). Beginning with The Appeal to the Dauphin (fig. 5), this first point has to do with the architecture of the room instead of the clothing of the courtiers. The floor in this painting is mostly covered by courtiers and a rug, but the small section that is visible is patterned. The flooring is arranged in a geometric, repetitive pattern with rectangles and squares in what is likely a depiction of tiled flooring.25 In van Eyck’s Virgin and Child (fig. 13), there is similar detailed tiled flooring. Tiling was a common floor material in medieval times and was used in both France and the Netherlands. While Boutet de Monvel’s tile pattern is much simpler and does not depict any inlaid tiles, his use of a floor pattern shows his inspiration and attempts to imitate medieval designs.
Returning to the brocade fabrics themselves, the garment worn by the patron of the van Eyck painting, The Virgin and Child (fig. 13), is a beautiful gold and brown pattern. Again, there is a natural pattern of a leaf or flower motif with some geometric detailing in between the large motifs. In Crowning at Rheims (fig. 8), the bishop who is placing the crown on the head of the Dauphin has a similar pattern on his cope. While primarily in white and gold, the pattern itself is remarkably similar. There is a repeated floral motif, with details in black on a cream ground. What proves an even greater point of comparison to the bishops is a painting by Pier Francesco Sacchi. The Four Doctors of the Church with the symbols of the four evangelists (1516) (fig. 14) is an oil on wood painting that was acquired by the Napoleonic seizure in 1812, and arrived at the Louvre in 1813.26 Depicted are Saints Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, and Gregory the Great in high ecclesiastical garb, except for Saint Jerome in his plain cardinal’s robes. They are seated in a small room that looks out onto an Italian countryside. The figure of most interest in relation to Boutet de Monvel is Saint Ambrose, who sits on the right; his vestments are a solid green with brilliant gold brocade underneath. The pattern of this brocade is closely reflected in the copes of the many bishops seen in Crowning at Rheims (fig. 8). The bishop closest to the edge of the painting who is slightly cut off showcases this subtle gold upon gold overlay. Large floral patterns are present again in this comparison with smaller floral motifs filling in the gaps between these larger patterns.
Still more can be seen from this painting, showing a final comparison of how brocades may have inspired and influenced Boutet de Monvel’s work. Looking still at Sacchi’s Four Doctors of the Church (fig. 14), behind Saint Jerome and Saint Gregory the Great is a blue brocade cloth. It is not clear what it is draped over, if anything, but its pattern is a subtle dark blue floral over a lighter blue. An extremely similar pattern can be found in Appeal to the Dauphin (fig. 2), where a courtier is dressed in black. The figure stands to the right of the scene and demonstrates the idea of placing a darker shade of a color on top of a lighter one. While it is not the contrast or brilliance seen in other patterns, it is a realistic one that was used in the 1500s.
These three paintings each show subtle differences in brocades, and each supports the distinctiveness of the brocades and gilding within Boutet de Monvel’s Joan of Arc paintings. Imitating the brocade styles, colors, and patterns found in medieval paintings helps to place this medieval saint in the context and time that is her own. However, there is not a sole reliance on older techniques and motifs. There is also a modern aspect to Boutet de Monvel’s style visible in these six paintings that also appears in his prior work. This modern aspect is Japonisme’s influence on the Joan of Arc paintings, which is my next focus. Boutet de Monvel’s location in Paris, during the heyday of Japonisme and its rise in popularity means he would have been exposed to Japanese art itself along with other artists who were using these motifs in their practices.
Japonisme began with the importation of Asian goods from Japan. For this paper, the most important of these imported goods were ukiyo-e prints. They were cheap material for the Japanese senders, but they became popular in the West. Motifs and stylistic choices that were either reminiscent of or directly taken from Japanese prints began appearing in western artists’ works in the mid-1800s. There is no direct evidence that Boutet de Monvel had Japanese prints in his studio or that he directly interacted and took inspiration from them. However, there are elements in the Joan of Arc series that resemble the Japanese style. Further evidence of his possible Japanese inspiration comes from previous works that he produced. In fact, his use of Japanese techniques is noted by Michael Hearn: “Boutet de Monvel, like Mary Cassatt, borrowed freely from the flat design of Japanese wood engravings; and the patterns of his fabrics and wallpapers emphasize the decorative two-dimensionality of his compositions.”27 This flatness is observed in most of his illustrative works, along with his tendency for clearly defined outlines.
One such example is Pâte Dentifrice, du Docteur Pierre (1894) (fig. 3). It is an advertisement for dental hygiene that does not seem remarkably Japanesque at first, but a close inspection shows the Japanese influence present. The background, which seems to be some kind of wallpaper, is a cherry blossom pattern. Floral designs were common and seen regularly in prints and other mediums. Several flowers were distinctly Japanese in style and origin, with cherry blossoms being among them. They often contributed to motifs conveying intense emotion.28 While Boutet de Monvel was not attempting to create intense feelings, he was drawing on the visual motifs that Japanese art was providing. Along with the floral design, he has a flatness to his style that is remarkably like ukiyo-e prints. Flat planes of color are a distinct feature of ukiyo-e prints, and Boutet de Monvel showcases this throughout much of his illustrative work. Outlines also feature in his art, another common motif of Japanese prints. Beyond stylistic motifs, subject matter went beyond mere wallpaper designs.
One of the opening pages of Vielle Chansons et Rondes pour les Petits Enfants (1884) (fig. 15), a book that Monvel illustrated, shows a very Japanese composition. A single tulip is shown with a perfectly round sun behind it. Three butterflies flutter to the right of the tulip, two yellow and one a darker color. Butterflies have great significance within Japanese art, as they carry multiple meanings. Happiness, luck, and various other aspects of life can be connotated with a butterfly.29 Butterflies were popular motifs among Western artists with an interest in Japonisme. Some artists took the insect’s inclusions to a higher level, such as James McNeill Whistler, who used a butterfly as his signature for years. Tulips in and of themselves are not strictly Asian, but with the combination of a circular sun and butterflies, the tulip completes the composition with a floral element commonly seen in ukiyo-e prints. Two prints by Kitagawa Utamaro showcase this similarity. Cherry Blossoms and Irises, from the illustrated book Flowers of the Four Seasons (fig. 16) depicts the titular flowers. There is close resemblance between the stylization of the iris’s leaves and the tulip’s leaves; both are slender and outlined, and some lines can be seen drawn onto the leaves by Boutet de Monvel. Butterfly (Chō); Dragonfly (Kagerō or Tonbo), from the Picture Book of Crawling Creatures (Ehon mushi erami) (fig. 17) showcases the use of butterflies in ukiyo-e prints. Boutet de Monvel’s butterflies hold similar positions mid-flight to Utamaro’s, particularly the one on the far right. Once again, his flat planes of color and his outlines are visible here, the style of Japanese prints adding to the Asian quality of the composition.
As final evidence of Boutet de Monvel’s interest in Japonisme, there are three more pieces he created prior to the publication of Jeanne d’Arc. One is another illustration, this one from his book Nos Enfants (1887). On page 35, a child sits on grass with an umbrella behind him (fig. 18). The umbrella is a beloved accessory in ukiyo-e prints, and the stylization of Boutet de Monvel’s umbrella is closer to an Eastern one.30 Another illustration from the same book shows a view of the umbrella from behind (fig. 19), cementing in place the stylization of the umbrella as Japanese. Another Utamaro print showcases clearly the distinct look of an umbrella in ukiyo-e prints. In Enjoying the Cool Evening Breeze on and under the Bridge (fig. 20), the underside and top of a Japanese parasol can be seen. Boutet de Monvel’s parasol bears an almost identical resemblance to Utamaro’s. As a last example, a fan sketched by Boutet de Monvel was included in Sotheby’s auction of his studio.31 According to the Sotheby’s catalogue note, this fan was illustrated for Chansons de France (1883-84) and Nos Enfants (fig. 2), both of which were compiled and published before Jeanne d’Arc. These four examples of Boutet de Monvel’s work showcase his interest in and utilization of Japonisme prior to his work on Jeanne d’Arc or the six Clark paintings.
Within the Joan of Arc paintings, there are several different motifs and techniques that call to mind ukiyo-e prints. The first is the flatness of the paintings. Again, a feature that is prominent in his works prior to Jeanne d’Arc, the flat planes of color causing two-dimensionality that appear in the series of six paintings are a typical hallmark of Japanese prints.32 While Boutet de Monvel has retained some of that three-dimensionality in his pieces, they are overall very flat images. The Trial of Joan (fig. 9) seems to show this best, as it maintains a strange balance between the two dimensions. Another aspect of ukiyo-e prints reflected in Boutet de Monvel’s paintings is the technique of outlining. He had previously shown outlines as a common motif in his work, one which carried over into the creation of these paintings.
What is most interesting in this work is the use of cut off angles. A hallmark of ukiyo-e prints, abrupt cut offs of the picture plane serve as a dramatic way to engage the viewer. This type of cut off can be seen at various places in the six paintings, most notably in The Maid in Armor (fig. 6), The Turmoil of Conflict (fig. 7), and The Crowning at Rheims (fig. 8). In each of these paintings, there is an abrupt end to the scene with figures seeming to go beyond the edge of the canvas. Instead of his entire setting contained neatly within the confines of the 75.57 cm × 171.45 cm canvases, Boutet de Monvel allows the setting to flow naturally beyond its bounds. In The Maid in Armor (fig. 6), the military procession behind Joan is barely shown; in fact, one horse barely has its head visible, the rider absent entirely. In The Turmoil of Conflict (fig.7), cut offs are simply a part of the scene, adding to the chaos. From every direction except above, figures are cut off in various strange ways. On the left side of the painting, a man’s legs can be seen with no ideas as to the body they belong to. Finally, in the Crowning at Rheims (fig. 8), the court seems to be unending. The trumpeters on the right side of the scene are just barely cut off, with dozens of trumpets and swords held aloft behind them. This provides an illusory effect that these are snapshots of a larger image. These three paintings best exhibit Japanese motifs, but they can be seen in the three other paintings Vision and Inspiration (fig. 4), Appeal to the Dauphin (fig. 5), and The Trial of Joan of Arc (fig. 9) – if the viewer knows what to look for. The elements of angles and flat planes of color are quite clear in all six paintings.
Boutet de Monvel crafted a style that was uniquely his own. Though his artistic training began with great French academicians, his illustrative work caused him to take on a colorful and distinctive style. This is evidenced through all his illustrative works, but his Joan of Arc paintings showcase this stylistic originality at its height. Since the paintings are based on his previous illustrations, there is clear development and progress about Boutet de Monvel’s inspirations. Both Uccello and the medieval brocades show his appreciation for the art that has come before. With Uccello, there is a connection to the early Renaissance and to an artist who similarly had an individual style. Uccello is distinctive among the Renaissance artists of the quattrocento, with his primitivistic approach that differs from the realism and classicism typically associated with the fourteenth century. The similarities to the paintings of The Maid in Armor on Horseback (fig. 6) and The Turmoil of Conflict (fig. 7) are apparent to those who were looking closely, but Boutet de Monvel is modernizing these Renaissance scenes. While he maintains enough similarity to provoke comparison, he is not merely engaging in copy work.
The use of medieval brocade as a source of inspiration cannot be denied. While it may be some time before definitive patterns and paintings are uncovered that can be directly correlated to his design choices, I believe that the paintings presented in this paper showcase his medieval inspiration. None of the brocades in the paintings are a precise match to Boutet de Monvel’s brocades. Yet, there are clear connections seen in the colors and the themes of the brocade patterns. The gold seen in the paintings was taken to a heightened level and harkens back to the Byzantine and Gothic icons, possibly another source of inspiration for Boutet de Monvel. Regardless, there is a sense of age provided due to the imitation of medieval and early Renaissance art.
The Japanese influences from ukiyo-e prints are visible through Boutet de Monvel’s illustrative oeuvre. It is clear in his flatness and his angles of perspective that like other artists around him, he found inspiration from the East. As with the previous two sources I presented there is no definitive letter or statement by Boutet de Monvel showing this connection. However, I hope to have provided a thorough and clear exhibition of the influence of Japonisme leading up to and within the Jeanne d’Arc and the six Clark paintings. These six paintings of Joan of Arc can easily be called Boutet de Monvel’s magnum opus. They combine his painting skill with his developed illustrative style. Hopefully, his influences will be known in a more concrete and clearer way. For now, they further add to the paintings’ complexity, and show the depth of knowledge and brilliance of Louis Maurice Boutet de Monvel.
Endnotes
1 Nora M. Heimann and Laura Coyle, Joan of Arc: Her Image in France and America (Washington, D.C.: Corcoran Gallery of Art in association with D. Giles Publishing, 2006), 15; Marina Warner, Joan of Arc: The Image of Female Heroism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 4-5.
2 Maurice Boutet de Monvel (Washington D.C.: The Trust for Museum Exhibitions, 1987), 6.
3 Will H. Low, “Maurice Boutet de Monvel,” in Modern French Masters, ed. John C. Van Dyke (New York: The Century Co., 1896), 252-54.
4 Maurice Boutet de Monvel, 6.
5 Ibid.; Alison Hokanson, “Catalogue Entry,” Henri Fantin-Latour
(1836–1904) (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2014),
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/669033?sortBy=Relevance&ft=Carolus-Duran+(Charles- AugusteEmile+Durant)&offset=0&rpp=40&pos=1.
6 Low, “Maurice Boutet de Monvel,” 258; Boutet de Monvel, Louis
Maurice, Benezit Dictionary of Artists, 31 Oct. 2011; accessed 25 Apr. 2023, https://www.oxfordartonline.com/benezit/view/10.1093/benz/9780199773787.001.0001/acref-9780199773787-e-80024859.
7 Warner, Joan of Arc: The Image of Female Heroism, 60.
8 Maurice Boutet de Monvel, 11.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid.
11 Laura Coyle and Dare Myers Hartwell, Antiquities to
Impressionism: The William A. Clark Collection, Corcoran
Gallery of Art (London: Corcoran Gallery of Art and Scala Publishers, 2001), 133.
12 Coyle and Hartwell, Antiquities to Impressionism, 10.
13 Ibid., 11, 133.
14 Oxford English Dictionary Online, s.v. “Dauphin,” accessed
April 25, 2023, https://www.oed.com/dictionary/dauphin_n. .
15 Michael Patrick Hearn, “Maurice Boutet de Monvel: Master of the French Picture Book,” The Horn Book (April 1979), 178.
16 Selma G. Lanes, “Joan of Arc: Maurice Boutet de Monvel,” The Horn Book (February 1982), 82.
17 David Matthews, “Introduction,” in Medievalism: A Critical History, NED-New edition (Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 2015), 1–10, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt6wpbdd.7, 6.
18 Matthews, “Introduction,” 5, 6.
19 Ingrid Geelan and Delphine Steyaert, Imitation and Illusion:
Applied Brocade in the Art of the Low Countries in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries (Brussels: Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage, 2011), 29. 20 Geelan and Steyaert, Imitation and Illusion, 29.
21 Katherine Lester and Bess Viola Oerke, Accessories of Dress:
An Illustrated Encyclopedia (Mineola, New York:
Dover Publications, Inc., 2004), 18, 20-21.
22 “Object History,” The Annunciation, The Louvre, https://collections.louvre.fr/ark:/53355/cl010061889.
23 Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. “cope,” last updated Oct. 3, 2007,
accessed February 1, 2024,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/cope.
24 “Object History,” The Virgin and Child to Chancellor Rolin, The
Louvre, https://collections.louvre.fr/ark:/53355/cl010061856.
25 Bernadette Nelson, M. Leticia Sánchez Hernández, Bruce Tattersall, Hans van Lemmen, and Cleota Reed, “Tile, Grove Art Online, 2003, accessed 25 Apr. 2023, https://www.oxfordartonline.com/groveart/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000085016.
26 “Object History,” The Four Doctors of the Church with the
Symbols of the Four Evangelists, The Louvre
https://collections.louvre.fr/ark:/53355/cl010064424.
