Unit 4 Practice Activities

Loïs Mailou Jones (1905–1998) was a pioneering African American artist and educator known for her significant contributions to the Harlem Renaissance and American art scene. These artistic and literary movements aimed to celebrate Black culture and promote pride in African heritage. Jones's artwork often depicted scenes and themes related to Black identity and African culture, making her an essential figure in these movements. Les Fétiches is a seminal work that captures the artist's exploration of African and Caribbean aesthetics. 

Wifredo Lam (1902–1982) was a Cuban painter known for his significant contributions to modern art, mainly through his unique fusion of Afro-Cuban and surrealist influences.  As one of the leading artists of the Negrismo period, The Jungle (La Jungla), painted in 1943, is a seminal work encapsulating the artist's unique blend of Afro-Cuban symbolism and European modernism. Lam's legacy continues to influence contemporary discussions on the intersection of art, identity, and cultural heritage. He is considered a key figure in the development of modern Latin American art. 

Aimé Césaire was a Martinican poet, writer, and politician renowned for his significant contributions to literature. Césaire passionately critiqued and condemned the destructive impact of European colonialism on both the colonizers and the colonized. Discourse on Colonialism is considered a seminal text in postcolonial studies and has influenced discussions about imperialism, racism, and the enduring legacies of colonial history. 

Martin Luther King Jr. was a prominent American civil rights leader. King visited Ghana in March 1957, shortly after the country gained independence from British colonial rule on March 6, 1957. During his visit, King was invited by Ghana's first Prime Minister, Kwame Nkrumah, to attend the celebrations marking the nation's independence. 

 In the 1960s, Joe Louis, the legendary American heavyweight boxer, was involved in various activities beyond sports. He became a prominent civil rights activist and is recognized for his efforts to promote racial equality. His visit to Havana, Cuba, was part of broader initiatives related to civil rights, international relations, and cultural exchange. During the 1960s, there was increased interest and engagement between African American leaders and figures and Cuba, particularly as the Cuban Revolution unfolded.

Headnote: Maya Angelou and Julian Mayfield were involved in significant activism and participated in a demonstration outside the United States Embassy in Accra, Ghana. The demonstration was a response to the racial segregation and violence against African Americans in the United States and a manifestation of the increasing politicization of African American expatriates living in Ghana. Their platform was to draw attention to the racial injustices occurring in the United States and to express their solidarity with the Civil Rights movement. 

James G. Thompson was an African American journalist and columnist who wrote during a crucial historical period when racial segregation, discrimination, and civil rights were prominent during World War II. He addressed the challenges and experiences faced by African Americans in a society marked by racial inequality. His writing would catalyze the Double V Campaign. 

 The 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion was a Women's Army Corps (WAC) in the United States Army during World War II. The battalion was notable for being the only all-black, all-female unit to serve overseas during the war. The battalion played a crucial role in clearing a massive backlog of mail that had accumulated for American service members stationed in Europe. They were responsible for sorting and delivering mail, ensuring that soldiers received communication from their loved ones. 

 The Tuskegee Army Airfield, located in Tuskegee, Alabama, was the primary training facility for African American pilots during World War II. The flight instructor staff at Tuskegee played a crucial role in training and preparing African American pilots for combat. The instructors were often experienced pilots and were responsible for teaching aspiring aviators the various aspects of flying, including navigation, aerial combat tactics, and aircraft operations. 

This landmark United States Supreme Court case dealt with racial segregation in public schools. In the unanimous decision written by Chief Justice Earl Warren, the Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for Black and white students unconstitutional, overturning the precedent set by the 1896 case Plessy v. Ferguson. The decision in Brown v. Board of Education marked a significant turning point in the Civil Rights movement. 

 Gordon Parks, known for his work as a photographer and filmmaker, documented various aspects of African American life and the Civil Rights movement. His collaboration with the Clarks in capturing the images related to the doll test contributed to the historical documentation of the impact of racism on children's perceptions of themselves and others. The images significantly influenced public opinion and contributed to the legal arguments against racial segregation. 

The Clark Doll Test was a landmark study in psychology aimed to investigate the impact of racial segregation on the self-esteem and identity of African American children. Conducted by psychologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark, the findings from the doll test played a crucial role in the landmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case in 1954.  

The Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) was a government-sponsored agency established in 1933 during the Great Depression. The maps, often called HOLC "redlining" maps, classify neighborhoods into different grades or colors based on perceived lending risk. Neighborhoods with predominantly African American or minority populations were marked as high-risk (often in red), leading to disinvestment and a lack of access to loans. The maps and the practice of redlining had severe and lasting consequences.

 The play A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry, first performed in 1959, reveals the aspirations and struggles of an African American family living in Chicago's South Side during the 1950s. Set in a small apartment, the Younger family grapples with the challenges of racism and poverty and dreams for a better future. Hansberry explores themes of identity, generational conflict, and the pursuit of the American Dream. 

"Nonviolence and Racial Justice" is a sermon by Martin Luther King Jr. from 1957. The sermon is notable for its emphasis on the principles of nonviolent resistance to achieve racial justice and equality. In this speech, Dr. King articulates the philosophy of nonviolence that would become a central tenet of the Civil Rights movement.  

Danny Lyon, a 20-year-old photographer, traveled to Cairo, Illinois to photograph a group of civil rights protestors demonstrating against the town’s racial segregation. Lyon was surprised by the lack of media coverage and the degree of violence directed at the peaceful protestors. The 1962 photograph of the future Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) chairman, John Lewis, became the SNCC poster with the tagline 'Come Let Us Build a New World Together.’ 

 This speech, delivered by John Lewis during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, advocated for civil rights and equality for all Americans, mainly focusing on the plight of Black Americans who faced discrimination and segregation. Lewis was a prominent civil rights leader and activist who chronicled the struggles and victories of the African American community during the fight for equality and justice. As the current Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) Chairman, Lewis was one of the six leaders who spoke at the event. 

Written in 1964, the paper represented the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee’s (SNCC) evolving stance on women's participation in and contributions to the struggle for civil rights. It acknowledged women's vital role within SNCC and the broader movement. The paper argued for a more inclusive and equitable approach to leadership and decision-making within SNCC. 

 The New York City school boycott was about racial segregation and unequal conditions in public schools. A coalition of civil rights activists, including members of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and other organizations, planned the boycott to draw attention to the disparities in educational opportunities for African American and Puerto Rican students. 

A bilingual poem written by a prominent Afro-Cuban poet, Nicolás Guillén was known for his works that addressed social and racial issues. Guillén was a prominent poet and one of the leading figures in the Negritude movement. This poem explores the theme of racial oppression and the struggle for equality, focusing on the experience of Black people in the city of Little Rock. Through vivid imagery and powerful language, Guillén's poem captures the Black community's pain, resilience, and hope in the face of discrimination.  

 The composition title refers to Orval Faubus, the Governor of Arkansas at the time, who infamously opposed the desegregation of Little Rock Central High School. The song responded to Faubus's actions, and Mingus used his music to express his outrage and criticism of racial segregation. The composition is known for its powerful and evocative expression of Mingus's views on racism and social justice. The original recording did not include lyrics. 

 The book Why We Can’t Wait by Martin Luther King Jr. provides a detailed account of the Civil Rights Movement, focusing on the events in Birmingham, Alabama, in 1963.  The song described in the excerpt is more than just a melody; it represents a stubborn refusal to be swayed or turned away. These freedom songs bind us together, instilling courage and propelling us forward as a united force. They serve as a powerful tool that strengthens our collective resolve and aids us in marching together toward equality and justice. 

Ain’t Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me Around, was a traditional African American spiritual associated with the Civil Rights movement. The lyrics and melody have roots in the gospel and spiritual traditions. Activists often sang it to boost morale during protests and demonstrations, symbolizing the refusal to be deterred or discouraged by obstacles or opposition.  

This speech by Malcolm X is considered a significant statement of his political philosophy and advocacy for Black empowerment. The speech was an urgent call to action for Black Americans to assert their rights and demand equality through political empowerment. Malcolm X believed that Black people had two choices - they could utilize their voting power effectively (the ballot) or resort to more forceful means (the bullet) to bring about change. This speech remains a pivotal moment in America's fight for racial justice.  

The press conference at the United States Capitol in 1964 was significant because it symbolized a rare occasion where Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. shared the same platform. Both leaders expressed their views on civil rights issues in distinct ways. Malcolm X emphasized the importance of Black self-determination and called for Black Americans to demand their rights without compromise. He argued that if the government failed to protect the rights of Black citizens, they should take matters into their own hands.  

Muhammad Speaks was the official newspaper of the Nation of Islam, an African American religious movement founded in the 1930s. The newspaper was founded in 1960 and served as a platform for the teachings and beliefs of the Nation of Islam. The Nation of Islam members sold the newspaper by distributing it on street corners, in public spaces, and sometimes door-to-door. 

The leader of the Nation of Islam, Elijah Muhammad, was known for addressing gatherings of Black Muslims at conventions and rallies throughout his leadership tenure. Muhammad held the gatherings to disseminate his teachings and reinforce the principles of the Nation of Islam. His speeches at conventions were instrumental in rallying support for the Nation of Islam, maintaining unity among its members, and inspiring activism within the Black community. 

 This print was created by the renowned African American artist, Elizabeth Catlett, known for her powerful and poignant works that addressed themes such as race, identity, and social justice. The name "Negro es Bello II” means "Black is Beautiful II" in English and is part of a Catlett series that celebrates the beauty and dignity of Blackness.  

 The Ten-Point Program became a cornerstone of the Party's ideology and activism during the civil rights era. The Program outlined their demands and goals for social and political change. The ten points served as a manifesto for the Black Panther Party, highlighting their commitment to racial equality, economic justice, and self-determination for Black communities in the United States. 

Black Panther women in Oakland were instrumental in various aspects of the party's work. They contributed to the Black Panther Party's legacy and its impact on the struggle for civil rights and Black liberation. They recognized the importance of education and fought to establish schools that would empower Black children to embrace their history and culture. The Black Panther women believed that education was a tool for liberation, helping to break the cycle of oppression. 

The Free Food Program was a response to the widespread poverty and food insecurity experienced by Black communities, exacerbated by systemic racism and economic inequality. The program aimed to address these issues directly by providing free breakfasts to children, groceries to families in need, and even free community meals. The Free Food Program served as a form of community empowerment and political education. 

 Kathleen Cleaver, a prominent figure in the Black Panther Party, spoke out about the significance of natural hair as a political statement and a form of resistance against societal norms that enforced Eurocentric beauty standards. She embraced her natural hair as a symbol of pride in her African heritage and as a rejection of assimilationist ideals. Members of the Black Panther Party often wore their hair in afros, which became an iconic symbol of Black power and self-determination. 

The Grandassa models were a group of Black women who embraced their natural hair and traditional African attire, challenging mainstream beauty standards and celebrating their African heritage. Dashiki, a loose-fitting tunic originating from West Africa, symbolized Black pride and identity during the Black Power movement of the 1960s.  

The poem is one of Angelou's most famous works. For many, it has become an iconic piece of literature and an anthem of resilience and strength. It is a powerful expression of self-love and determination in the face of oppression and adversity. It was written as a powerful affirmation of self-worth and dignity, drawing inspiration from Angelou's experiences as a Black woman overcoming racism, sexism, and other forms of oppression.   

 A seminal document in the history of Black feminist thought and activism that emphasizes the importance of centering the experiences and perspectives of Black women in feminist and anti-racist organizing. It was written in 1977 by a group of Black feminists, most notably Barbara Smith, Beverly Smith, and Demita Frazier. The collective was named after the Combahee River in South Carolina, where Harriet Tubman led a successful raid against the Confederacy during the Civil War.  

 The story is a poignant exploration of race, identity, and belonging in a predominantly white society. Brooks illuminates the complexities of racial dynamics and how systemic racism shapes social interactions. It offers a powerful commentary on the enduring legacy of racism and the importance of self-affirmation and solidarity in the face of oppression. 

General Colin Powell's commencement address at Howard University in 1994 was delivered at a pivotal moment in American history, shortly after the end of the Cold War and amid ongoing social and political transformations. As the first African American Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Powell's address held profound significance, symbolizing progress and breaking barriers in the military and broader society. 

NOTE: Access the video on AP Classroom.

The portrait of former President Barack Obama by Kehinde Wiley was unveiled in February 2018 at the Smithsonian's National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C. Wiley, known for his vibrant and bold reinterpretations of historical paintings, infuses Obama's portrait with modernity and cultural references. Wiley's selection as the artist for Obama's official portrait further underscores the administration's commitment to diversity and contemporary art, making it a landmark moment in political and artistic spheres. It has been widely praised for its innovative approach and capturing the essence of Obama's personality and legacy. 

Amy Sherald is known for her unique style of portraiture, characterized by grayscale skin tones and the absence of background details.  As the first African American woman commissioned for a presidential portrait, Sherald's contribution to the legacy of American portraiture is significant, making her work a powerful symbol of inclusivity and representation. The portrait has been widely praised for its modern and striking interpretation of the former First Lady, capturing her elegance and poise while challenging traditional notions of representation.  

 These charts represent the challenges and opportunities faced by the Black middle class in the United States, particularly in terms of political representation and policy issues. Charts within the report may illustrate data related to income, wealth, education, homeownership, employment, and other factors that affect the Black middle-class population. The report includes policy recommendations to address the unique needs and concerns of the Black middle class and promote greater political attention to these issues. 

 The article explores the multifaceted nature of the Black American population in the United States. Through rigorous analysis of demographic trends and social dynamics, Tamir sheds light on the increasing diversity within this community, encompassing differences in immigration status, socioeconomic backgrounds, and cultural identities. The research aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the evolving composition of Black America, highlighting the significance of intersectionality and the need for nuanced approaches to address its members' diverse needs and experiences. 

 The shift in religious affiliation among the younger generation has significant implications for the African American community. Protestantism has played a central role in the holy lives of many Black Americans. Historically, the Black church has been an important institution that provided spiritual guidance, community support, and a platform for social and political activism.  

Portia Maultsby's essay explores African American music's historical and cultural roots, tracing its development from its African origins through slavery and into the modern era. Through a detailed timeline spanning centuries, the book delves into the cultural influences, historical events, and social movements that have shaped the evolution of African American music, offering a comprehensive understanding of its significance and enduring legacy in American society. 

Breakdancing emerged as a form of expression among urban youth, particularly African American and Latino communities, and quickly gained popularity across the United States and internationally. It was characterized by dynamic movements, acrobatics, and improvisation, often performed to the beats of hip-hop music. In 1984, the breakdancing scene in New York was at its peak. Street corners, parks, and even subway stations became makeshift stages for these talented performers.   

The Betrayal, a film written, produced, and directed by Oscar Micheaux in 1948, received critical acclaim for its powerful storytelling and compelling performances. It provided a platform for talented Black actors to showcase their skills and challenge the stereotypes prevalent in mainstream cinema.  It symbolizes a significant moment in the history of Black cinema and serves as a reminder of the struggles and triumphs of African American filmmakers. A lobby card is a small promotional poster for a movie, displayed in a theater's lobby.

In the 1970s, during the height of the Civil Rights movement in the United States, a television show called Soul Train emerged as a cultural phenomenon. This groundbreaking program showcased African American music, dance, and style in a way that had never been seen before. The iconic photo captures the essence of Soul Train during this transformative era. 

The best Soul Train line dances were characterized by their energetic and rhythmic movements, reflecting soul music's vibrant and lively spirit. These dances became famous on the show and in dance clubs and parties across the country. The Soul Train Line helped bring people together and created a sense of community through the love of music and dance. Access video on AP Classroom.

An early depiction of African Americans in sports. This print, part of a series of three, depicts the start of a race at Washington Race Course in Charleston, South Carolina, featuring enslaved men as jockeys.

In this Rolls Press photograph, “The medal presentation for the Men’s 200 metres final at the 1968 Summer Olympics, American athletes, gold medalist Tommie Smith (in centre) and bronze medalist John Carlos (right) each raise a clenched fist and bow their heads during the US national anthem, as a human rights protest, while they stand on the podium with Australian silver medalist Peter Norman, in the Estadio Olimpico Universitario in Mexico City, Mexico on 16th October 1968. All three men wore badges expressing support for the Olympic Project for Human Rights; and Smith and Carlos’ gestures have been described (by the men themselves) as both Black Power and Human Rights salutes." 

A contemporary example of sports as a platform for protest. Eli Harold #58, Colin Kaepernick #7, and Eric Reid #35 of the San Francisco 49ers kneel for the anthem prior to the game against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers at Levi Stadium on October 23, 2016, in Santa Clara, California. 

Mary Jackson was the first Black woman to be an engineer at NASA.

A photograph of Dr. Mae C. Jemison aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour.

Following her death at the age of thirty-one from cervical cancer, Henrietta Lacks’s cells were harvested from her body (without her or her family’s knowledge and consent) and used to create an immortal cell line, known as HeLa.

Nichelle Nichols portrayed Lieutenant Uhura on all three seasons of Star Trek’s original series (1966–1969), Star Trek: The Animated Series (1973–1974), and six feature films. Named for the Swahili word uhuru, or “freedom,” Uhura served as the Enterprise’s communications officer, and Nichols’s performance was particularly praised by Martin Luther King Jr. and served as an inspiration for future NASA astronauts and engineers.  Fun fact: one of the first interracial kisses was on Star Trek, with William Shatner (Captain Kirk) and Nichelle Nichols!

The 1974 film Space Is the Place dramatizes the purported origin story of Sun Ra (born Herman Poole Blount), arriving on Earth from outer space with his “Arkestra.”

Article written by Walter Mosley for The New York Times Magazine, November 1, 1998