“India has a rich legacy in science, technology and innovation. Our scientists have done path breaking research. Our tech industry is at the forefront of solving global problems. But, India wants to do more. We look at the past with pride but want an even better future.” 1

 Prime Minister

 Shri Narendra Modi

Innovation in science and technology is the cornerstone of a nation’s long-term development and global standing. Scientific progress not only drives economic growth and social well-being but also fosters a spirit of inquiry and rational discourse—essential attributes of a progressive and democratic society. India’s contributions to science date back centuries, and as the nation advances, it is steadily transitioning from being a consumer of knowledge to a leading global producer. 

India has a rich legacy of scientific discoveries and technological advancements, with the concept of zero, documented in the Bakhshali manuscript (AD 200–400), marking a landmark contribution to mathematics. The works of scholars such as Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Bhaskara, and Madhava of Sangamagrama laid the foundation for various scientific disciplines, while in the modern era, luminaries like C.V. Raman, S.N. Bose, and Srinivasa Ramanujan have further elevated India’s stature in global scientific discourse. Since gaining independence in 1947, India has made remarkable strides in science and technology, overcoming economic challenges and limited resources.  continue reading.

India’s railway system, now among the largest and most intricate in the world, has its roots in an era of empire. What began in the mid-19th century as a colonial experiment quickly evolved into one of the most defining infrastructures of British rule. While ostensibly a symbol of progress and modernization, the railway network was constructed primarily to serve imperial interests- moving goods, troops, and administrative machinery swiftly across vast distances. Yet, its influence transcended these initial motives, reshaping India's physical, economic, and social landscape in ways that continue to reverberate.

From Concept to Construction: Early Rail Experiments

The idea of constructing railways in India first took shape in the 1830s, as British merchants and engineers recognized the potential of steam locomotion to unlock the subcontinent's economic potential. Initial surveys and proposals were undertaken near Madras (now Chennai), where a short experimental rail line was laid in 1837 under engineer Arthur Cotton to transport granite. These early efforts foreshadowed a more expansive and structured initiative.

Momentum gathered in the 1840s when prominent British figures like Macdonald Stephenson publicly advocated for a comprehensive railway system. His proposals, supported by the powerful British East India Company and imperial policymakers, led to the formation of private companies such as the East Indian Railway Company and the Great Indian Peninsular Railway. These ventures operated under a guaranteed return model, where the British government assured a fixed interest to British investors- effectively making Indian railways a low-risk, high-profit imperial enterprise.  Continue Reading 

Introduction 

Scientific research is the driving force behind a nation’s progress, playing a crucial role in technological advancements, economic growth, and societal development. It fosters innovation, strengthens national security, and improves the overall quality of life by addressing global challenges and enhancing knowledge. In this endeavor the name of ISRO in the area of space science research is immense.  Its really a remarkable journey that began in 1962, with transporting rocket parts from carrying rockets on a bullock cart1 to deploying cutting-edge Mobile Launch Pedestals (MLP)2. Today ISRO has transformed into a global leader in space technology, driving India’s advancements in satellite communication, remote sensing, planetary exploration, and human spaceflight, ISRO’s relentless innovation has propelled India into the elite league of spacefaring nations, making significant contributions to science, technology, and global cooperation. Continue Reading

INTRODUCTION

Chandrayaan-3, the third installment in Indias Chandrayaan program of lunar exploration missions, was launched on July 14, 2023, by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). The mission consists of a lunar lander known as Vikram and a lunar rover named Pragyan, akin to those deployed during the Chandrayaan-2 mission in 2019. 

The spacecraft commenced its journey from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre on July 14, 2023, and successfully entered lunar orbit on August 5. On August 23, the lander made a precise landing near the lunar south pole, marking India as the fourth nation to achieve a successful lunar landing and the first to do so in the vicinity of the lunar south pole. 

On September 3, the lander executed a short hop, repositioning itself approximately 30–40 cm (12–16 inches) from its original landing site. Following the accomplishment of its primary mission objectives, there were hopes for the lander and rover to resume further tasks on September 22, 2023. However, they failed to respond to the wake-up call, and on September 30, the onset of the second lunar night extinguished any remaining prospects for their revival.

HISTORY OF CHANDRAYAAN

Chandrayaan-1 (2008) – Indias Maiden Lunar Mission 

On October 22, 2008, India's first mission to the Moon, Chandrayaan-1, was successfully launched from SDSC SHAR in Sriharikota. The spacecraft was orbiting the Moon at a height of 100 kilometres above the lunar surface to map the Moon's chemical, mineralogical, and photo-geologic composition. The spacecraft carried 11 scientific equipment built in India, the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Sweden, and Bulgaria. After completing all primary mission objectives successfully, the orbit was increased to 200 kilometres in May 2009. The satellite completed more than 3400 orbits around the moon before communication with the spacecraft was lost on August 29, 2009.[1]

Chandrayaan-2 (2019) – A Complex Lunar Mission 

The Chandrayaan-2 mission is a highly sophisticated project that represents a considerable technological leap above ISRO's prior missions. It included an Orbiter, Lander, and Rover to explore the Moon's undiscovered South Pole. The missions goal is to advance lunar science by conducting detailed studies of topography, seismography, mineral identification and distribution, surface chemical composition, thermo-physical characteristics of top soil, and the composition of the tenuous lunar atmosphere, which will lead to a new understanding of the Moon's origin and evolution. 

Following the injection of Chandrayaan-2, a series of manoeuvres were performed to boost its orbit, and on August 14, 2019, the spacecraft emerged from orbiting the Earth and followed a route that led it to the region of the Moon, following the Trans Lunar Insertion (TLI) manoeuvre. Chandrayaan-2 was successfully launched into lunar orbit on August 20, 2019. On September 02, 2019, while orbiting the moon in a 100-kilometre lunar polar orbit, the Vikram Lander was separated from the Orbiter in preparation for landing. Following that, Vikram Lander underwent two de-orbit manoeuvres to adjust its orbit and began circling the moon in a 100 km x 35 km orbit. The Vikram Lander descended as predicted, with typical performance up to an altitude of 2.1 km. As a result, communication between the lander and the ground stations was lost. Using its eight cutting-edge scientific equipment, the Orbiter will expand our understanding of the Moon”s evolution and mapping of minerals and water molecules in Polar regions once it is in its targeted orbit around the Moon.  The orbiter continues to investigate the moon from orbit, while the soft landing attempt by the lander failed owing to a last-minute problem.[2]

Chandrayaan-3 (2023) – Learning from Setbacks 

Chandrayaan-3 is a follow-up mission to Chandrayaan-2 that will demonstrate end-to-end capability in safe lunar landing and wandering. It has a Lander and a Rover configuration. LVM3 will launch it from SDSC SHAR in Sriharikota. The lander and rover configuration will be carried by the propulsion module until they reach 100 km lunar orbit. The Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE) payload aboard the propulsion module is used to analyse spectral and Polarimetric measurements of Earth from lunar orbit.

Chandrayaan-3 is made up of an indigenous Lander module (LM), a Propulsion module (PM), and a Rover, and its goal is to develop and demonstrate new technologies needed for interplanetary missions. The Lander will be able to soft land at a predetermined lunar spot and deploy the Rover, which will conduct in-situ chemical analysis of the lunar surface while moving. The Lander and Rover are equipped with research payloads to conduct experiments on the lunar surface. The primary duty of the PM is to transport the LM from the launch vehicle to the final lunar 100 km circular polar orbit and then separate the LM from the PM. Aside from that, the Propulsion Module carries one scientific payload that will operate when the Lander Module is separated. The launcher for Chandrayaan-3 has been designated as LVM3 M4, which will place the integrated module in an Elliptic Parking Orbit (EPO) measuring 170 x 36500 kilometres.[3]

EVOLUTION

The evolution of the Chandrayaan-3 mission is a testament to the remarkable growth of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). From humble beginnings, where rocket parts were transported on bicycles and bullock carts, to the Chandrayaan-3 mission, ISRO’s journey resembles a cinematic script.

 In 1969, ISRO was established, and it steadily evolved over the years. In 1988, it launched a robust remote sensing program, providing valuable Earth Observation data through various instruments, including the highest-resolution civilian cameras aboard IRS-1C, which were unmatched until the launch of the U.S.-based DigitalGlobe’s Ikonos satellite in 1999. ISRO’s accomplishments include launching 124 of its spacecraft, including missions to the Moon and Mars, and facilitating the launch of 424 satellites from other countries. Its Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) gained recognition for deploying 104 satellites in a single launch in 2017, setting a world record later surpassed by SpaceX’s Transporter-1 mission in 2021.

In 2018, ISRO completed its own navigation system, NavIC, placing India among a select group of nations with this capability. NavIC was developed to ensure reliable navigation in situations where foreign government-controlled global navigation satellite systems might be unavailable. The Chandrayaan missions represent a continuation of this legacy. The success of the GSLV Mk-III launch, carrying Chandrayaan-2, highlighted ISRO’s proficiency in managing substantial payloads. Chandrayaan-3 further refines this expertise, envisioning a future where India’s lunar endeavors are self-sustained.

Despite financial constraints, with an annual budget significantly lower than NASA’s, ISRO has garnered global recognition. The Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) in 2013, known for its cost-efficiency at $74 million, operated in orbit for eight years, observing the Martian surface with a budget lower than a Hollywood sci-fi blockbuster.

Notably, Chandrayaan-3, with a budget of approximately $75 million, cost about the same as a single SpaceX Falcon 9 launch. The Chandrayaan missions have been a significant part of ISRO’s journey. Chandrayaan-1 marked India’s entry into lunar exploration, and Chandrayaan-2, while facing challenges, laid the groundwork for Chandrayaan-3. 

Chandrayaan-3 rectified identified software issues and achieved a successful lunar landing. Chandrayaan-3’s success holds great promise for India’s ambition to establish a sustainable human presence on the Moon. Under the Artemis Accords, ISRO can claim mining rights in the landing area. The mission is expected to inspire innovative scientific research, advancing our understanding of the Moon’s composition, geology, and resource potential. It also supports planned missions like the Lunar Polar Exploration Mission (LUPEX), a collaboration between ISRO and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), to explore the Moon’s south pole region.

At its core, India’s space journey is a lesson in self-reliance. Despite bureaucratic complexities, political challenges, and limited resources, ISRO has defied stereotypes, emerging as a formidable player in the global space community. Its resilience, innovation, and collaboration have propelled its prominence, with even the New York Times offering a rare apology for a controversial caricature in 2014. ISRO’s narrative continues to unfold with each chapter, promising exciting developments in space exploration.

COMPANIES CONTRIBUTION

List of companies[4] and startups contributing to Chandrayaan-3 

Hindustan Aeronautics 

Hindustan Aeronautics has been a pivotal contributor to the Chandrayaan-3 mission’s triumph. It supplied multiple components to the National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL), providing indispensable support to the mission. 

Paras Defence and Space Technologies 

In 2020, NewSpace India Limited (NSIL) and the Department of Space (DoS) established a memorandum of understanding to assist NSIL in identifying technologies within ISRO’s domain with the potential for commercialization and transfer to private and public sector entities. As per the agreement, NSIL transferred approximately 363 technologies for commercial utilization.

Ananth Technologies

Headquartered in Hyderabad with exclusive facilities in Bengaluru and Thiruvananthapuram, Ananth Technologies played a significant role by contributing avionics packages for the LVM3 mission. This contribution encompassed onboard computers, control electronics, navigation systems, telemetry power systems, and more. 

MTAR Technologies[5]

MTAR Technologies, in collaboration with Hindustan Aeronautics and Godrej, aided ISRO in the development of the stage and engine. 

Centum Electronics

Centum Electronics has manufactured around 300 to 500 components for various space missions in India, including the Chandrayaan-3 mission.

Larsen and Toubro (L&T) 

Larsen and Toubro announced its substantial involvement in the LVM3M4 Chandrayaan Mission launch. The company has been an integral part of the mission since its inception, contributing to the manufacturing of subsystems. 

Bharat Heavy Electricals (BHEL) 

Bharat Heavy Electricals, commonly known as BHEL, achieved a significant milestone by supplying its 100th battery to ISRO for the Chandrayaan-3 mission. 

Godrej Aerospace 

Godrej Aerospace played a vital role by providing key core components for the space mission. The company was responsible for developing the rocket’s thrusters and engines.

Walchandnagar Industries

Walchandnagar Industries contributed to the manufacturing of essential components for not just one, but all 48 launches conducted thus far. Their involvement dates back to the inaugural launch of PSL-D1 in 1993.

Himson Industrial Ceramic

Himson Industrial Ceramic, based in Surat, supplied critical components that safeguard Chandrayaan-3’s equipment from extreme temperatures. This includes fireproof squibs, ceramic components designed to insulate critical wiring components from intense heat.

ADVANTAGES

• Technological Advancements: Chandrayaan-3 incorporates several improvements from its predecessor, Chandrayaan-2, demonstrating India’s technological prowess.

• Enhanced Control: Chandrayaan-3 features four engines with adjustable throttle and slew, as well as a Laser Doppler Velocimeter, enabling precise control of attitude and orientation during all phases of descent. 

• Scientific Instruments: The mission carries more sensitive versions of instruments already on the lunar surface, including a seismometer, Langmuir plasma probe, and a thermal probe, which will provide valuable data about the Moon’s geology and environment.

• Lunar Rover: The mission includes a lunar rover called Pragyan, equipped with scientific instruments such as an Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer and a Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscope to analyze lunar rocks and soil.

• Expanding Knowledge: Chandrayaan-3 contributes to the growing body of knowledge about the lunar surface and environment, reducing risks associated with future lunar missions.

• Economic Benefits: Success in the space race, including lunar missions, can have a positive impact on a country’s economy, potentially driving India’s space economy to an estimated worth of $13 billion by 2025.

• International Cooperation: India’s participation in lunar exploration positions it well for collaboration with other countries in building permanent infrastructure on the Moon, as evidenced by India’s signing of the Artemis Accords in July 2023.

FUTURE EXPEDITIONS

Gaganyaan Human Space Flight Program: The Gaganyaan program is a remarkable venture by ISRO, aiming to send Indian astronauts into space. One of the key advantages is the development of a test vehicle for the crew escape system, which is crucial for ensuring the safety of future astronauts. The program signifies India’s commitment to human spaceflight and is an essential step toward becoming a major player in human space exploration.

XPoSat: The XPoSat mission is India’s first dedicated polarimetry mission to study astronomical X-ray sources. Its advantages lie in the wealth of information it will provide about the dynamics of bright X-ray sources in extreme conditions, contributing to our understanding of celestial phenomena. The data gathered can have applications in astrophysics and cosmology.

Climate Observation Satellite (INSAT-3DS): The launch of an advanced climate observation satellite is a significant step in monitoring and understanding climate patterns. INSAT-3DS will provide vital data for climate research, weather forecasting, and disaster management, ultimately benefiting agriculture, resource management, and environmental protection. 

NISAR (India-U.S. Synthetic Aperture Radar): NISAR is an international collaborative effort with NASA and ISRO. The mission’s advantage lies in its capability to map the entire globe with high-resolution data in a short time. This data will be invaluable for studying changes in Earth’s ecosystems, tracking ice mass, monitoring vegetation biomass, predicting sea-level rise, and enhancing disaster management by providing insights into earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes, and landslides.

Gaganyaan Unmanned Missions: The planned unmanned missions ahead of Gaganyaan demonstrate ISRO’s meticulous approach to human spaceflight. These missions will serve as precursors to the human spaceflight program, allowing ISRO to test and validate critical systems and procedures. This step is pivotal in ensuring the safety and success of future manned missions.[6]

HLVM-3 (Human-rated LVM-3): The development of the HLVM-3 rocket is a significant advancement for India’s human spaceflight program. This rocket will have the capability to launch astronauts into Low Earth Orbit, marking a crucial milestone in India’s space capabilities. The inclusion of a Crew Escape System (CES) ensures the safety of astronauts in the event of an emergency.

International Space Station (ISS): India’s plan to send astronauts to the International Space Station represents a historic moment. The advantage here is the opportunity for Indian astronauts to gain valuable experience in space, collaborate with international counterparts, and contribute to research on the ISS, further enhancing India’s reputation in the field of space exploration.

Venus Mission: ISRO’s proposed mission to Venus is a testament to its scientific ambition. While the details are yet to be fully revealed, the mission’s advantage is that it showcases ISRO’s technical prowess in tackling challenging planetary exploration. The mission will contribute to scientific research and potentially shed light on Venus’s enigmatic conditions.[7]

REFERENCES

1. Chandrayaan-1, https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan_1.html. 

2. Chandrayaan-2, https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan_2.html.

3. Chandrayaan-3, https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3_Details.html.

4. Astha Pasricha, Here Is The List Of Companies Behind The Launch Of Chandrayaan-3 Mission, Jagran Josh, https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/here-is-the-list-of-companies-behind-the-launch-of-chandrayaan-3-mission-1692793135-1, (last asseced: 06/11/2023: 05:34).

5. Know the companies which worked with ISRO for Chandrayaan-3 mission, Economic Times Energyworld.com, https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/power/know-the-companies-which-worked-with-isro-for-chandrayaan-3-mission/103002810, (last asseced: 06/11/2023: 05:50).What next for ISRO after Chandryaan-3 mission?, The Hindu, https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/what-next-for-isro-after-chandrayaan-3-mission/article67222472.ece, (last asseced: 06/11/2023: 07:10)

6. Arjun Sengupta, Sun mission, Japan collaboration and more: What has ISRO planned after Chandrayaan-3’s success?, The Indian Express, https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-sci-tech/isro-future-missions-8910764/, (last asseced: 06/11/2023: 07:55).

INTRODUCTION 

Since attaining independence, the Government of India has consistently prioritized the economic development of the country and in improving the standard of living of the poorer segments of the society. The Indian Constitution mandates the government to provide an equitable social framework by ensuring social, economic and political justice for the public. To realize the principles of fairness, the country embarked on a strategy of deliberate socio-economic growth. A policy is a concept or plan of action proposed or enacted by a governing authority. Governing bodies are collectives that collaboratively direct and assist a community, organization, enterprise, institution or similar entity.

Policies may manifest in several ways depending on the institution, organization, government or other entity in question. In general, policies exhibit several similar characteristics:

• Policies are official statements issued by an individual or entity endowed with the requisite authority.

• Policies influence principles and legislation.

• Policies dictate and shape methods of execution and sometimes designate responsible parties.

• Under optimal conditions, policies serve as invaluable instruments for enhancing the quality of life for all members of the community.

POLICIES IMPLEMENTED UNDER THE 5 YEAR PLANS AFTER INDEPENDENCE

The First Five-Year Plan (1951-1956) - Target Growth: 2.1%; Actual Growth: 3.6%

The First Five Year Plan was a major initiative that marked the commencement of India's post-Independence growth. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, presented the First Five-Year Plan to the Indian Parliament.The First Five-Year Plan mostly relied on the Harrod-Domar model.  A sum of Rs. 2069 crores  for this plan was allocated over seven primary areas, with a focus on agriculture, transportation and communications.

Second Five-Year Plan (1956-1961) - Target Growth: 4.5%; Actual Growth: 4.3%

Five Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) were founded as significant technical institutions after the plan era in 1956. The planned growth rate was 2.1%, but the realized growth rate was 3.6%. The strategy succeeded mainly due to favorable crops. The programmes pursued under this plan especially of refugee rehabilitation, food self-sufficiency and price control were mostly accomplished. 

Jawaharlal Nehru was overseeing the second five-year plan. It was founded on the PC Mahalanobis Model. The primary aim of this five-year plan was the nation's industrial expansion. Many experts denounced it, leading to a payment crisis in India in 1957. Despite a goal growth rate of 4.5%, the strategy yielded only a growth of 4.27%. The second plan was developed in a context of economic stability. Agriculture was deemed to have a lesser priority. The plan emphasized rapid industrialization, particularly in heavy and foundational industries. It promoted substantial imports using foreign financing.

The Industrial Policy of 1956 aimed to build a socialistic framework as the objective of economic policy. The acute  shortage of foreign currency resulted in a reduction of development objectives, accompanied by a price increase of almost 30% compared to the previous plan, while the Second Five-Year Plan achieved little success.

Third Five-Year Plan (1961-1966) - Target Growth: 5.6%; Actual Growth: 2.8%

This plan was formulated once again under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru. The initiative was referred to as the Gadgil Yojana, named after Dr. Gadgil, the Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission.The primary objective of this five-year strategy was to achieve economic autonomy. The agriculture sector was emphasized for this, especially wheat cultivation.

Focus on Industralization 

The Third plan Aimed for a 25% augmentation in national income with a total expenditure of Rs. 4,800 crores.

The Planning Commission to supervise and execute the plan. It established many public sector firms, such as Hindustan Machine Tools (HMT), Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) and Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), alongside the Green Revolution in agriculture. Drawing on the experiences of the first two plans, where agricultural output was seen as a constraining element in India's economic growth, agriculture was prioritized to bolster exports and industry. The plan was a comprehensive failure in achieving its objectives owing to unanticipated circumstances, including Chinese invasion in 1962, the Indo-Pakistani war in 1965 and a severe drought situationss from 1965 to 1966. Owing to conflicts, the strategy in the latter period transitioned from development to a focus on both defense and development. 

Three Annual Plans (1966-69) - Euphemistically Described as Plan Holiday

The failure of the Third Plan, attributed to the depreciation of the rupee (intended to enhance exports) and an inflationary recession, resulted in the delay of the Fourth Five-Year Plan. Instead, three Annual Plans were established. The ongoing crisis in agriculture and significant food shortages prompted a focus on agriculture in the Annual Plans.

A comprehensive agriculture policy was executed throughout these plans. It entails the vast distribution of high-yielding seed types, the massive use of fertilizers, the utilization of irrigation potential and soil conservation. Throughout the Annual Plans, the economy assimilated the disturbances caused by the Third Plan. It paved the path for the planned growth.

The Fourth Five-Year Plan (1969-1974) Target Growth : 5.7% Actual Growth : 3.3%

The Fourth Five Year Plan aimed to counteract the previous trend of increasing concentration of economic and wealth power. The approach was founded on the Gadgil formula, which prioritized expansion with stability and the pursuit of independence. Indira Gandhi served as prime minister during this period and her Government nationalized 14 major Indian banks, while the Green Revolution enhanced India's agricultural growth.

The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-1978) Target Growth : 4.4% Actual Growth: 4.8%

The final draft of the fifth plan was prepared and initiated by D.P. Dhar against the background of an economic crisis caused by rampant inflation, exacerbated by increasing oil costs and the government's unsuccessful acquisition of wholesale wheat trade. It aimed to accomplish two primary objectives: the eradication of poverty (Garibi Hatao) and the realization of self-reliance. The promotion of rapid development, improved income distribution and substantial increases in domestic savings rates were seen as essential strategies.

The denial of key equipment and raw resources from allies during the Indo-Pak conflict led to the dual aims of "growth with stability" and "progressive attainment of self-reliance."The primary focus was on the agricultural development rate to facilitate the advancement of other industries. The first two years of the strategy had unprecedented output levels. The last three years were inadequate owing to insufficient monsoon rainfall. The implementation of Family Planning Programs was one of the primary objectives of the Plan. The influx of Bangladeshi migrants before and during the 1971 Indo-Pak war was a significant concern, compounded by a worsening pricing situation that reached crisis levels, rendering the plan a considerable failure.

High inflation rendered the cost assumptions for the Plan entirely inaccurate, necessitating an upward revision of the initial public sector expenditure. Following the declaration of emergency in 1975, the focus transitioned to the execution of the Prime Minister's 20 Point Programme.

Rolling Plan (1978-1980)

The Rolling Plan was implemented after the abrupt ending of the Fifth Five-Year Plan. Three schemes were implemented under the Rolling plan for the then current fiscal year's budget. This plan was designed for a specified duration of 3, 4 or 5 years, with a long-term perspective extending to 10, 15 or 20 years. This plan offered several benefits.

Sixth Plan (1980 - 85) -Target Growth: 5.2%; Actual Growth  5.7%

The Plan emphasized the augmentation of national revenue, technological modernization, the persistent reduction of poverty and unemployment via skill transfer initiatives (TRYSEM) and integrated rural development programs (IRDP), provision of work during slack seasons (NREP) and the management of population growth. The sixth Plan may generally be seen as successful, since most targets were achieved, despite the fact that during the last year (1984-85), several regions of the nation experienced severe famine conditions and agricultural production fell below the record levels of the preceding year.

Seventh Five-Year Plan (1985 - 90) - Target Growth: 5.0%; Actual Growth: 6.0%

The Plan sought to expedite food grain production, enhance job possibilities and elevate productivity with an emphasis on 'food, labor, and productivity.' The strategy was very effective, as the economy achieved a 6% growth rate, surpassing the planned 5%, while the 1980s endeavored to overcome the 'Hindu Rate of Growth. 

Annual Plans (1990-1992)

Following the seventh five-year plan, a politically tense atmosphere emerges in the interim. The eighth five-year plan could not be executed. Two annual plans were established for the years 1990–1991 and 1991–1992.

Eighth Five-Year Plans (1992-1997) - Target Growth: 5.6%; Actual Growth: 6.8% 

The eighth plan was delayed by two years due to political instability at the Centre. The deteriorating balance of payments, escalating debt load, expanding budget deficits, industrial slump and inflation were the primary concerns throughout the plan's initiation. The plan implemented significant policy steps to address the adverse economic conditions and achieve an annual average growth of 5.6% via the adoption of fiscal and economic reforms, including liberalization, under the leadership of Prime Minister Shri P V Narasimha Rao.

Key economic accomplishments during the eighth plan period included accelerated economic development (the greatest annual growth rate to date at 6.8%), significant expansion in the agricultural and allied sectors, advancements in the manufacturing sector, increases in exports and imports and enhancements in trade and the current account deficit. A significant growth rate was attained despite a substantial decrease in the public sector's contribution to overall investment, which fell to around 34%. 

The Ninth Five-Year Plan (1997- 2002) Target Growth: 6.5%; Actual Growth: 5.4%

The Ninth Five-Year Plan was executed after 50 years of Indian independence, spanning from 1997 to 2002. Atal Bihari Vajpayee served as India's Prime Minister during the ninth five-year plan. Both the populace and official entities in the nation's rural and urban regions contributed to progress during the Ninth Five-Year Plan. The correlation between the nation's rapid economic expansion and the quality of life for its populace was a crucial element of the ninth five-year plan.

The plan developed by the United Front Government emphasized ‘Growth with Social Justice and Equality.’ The Ninth Plan sought to rely primarily on the private sector, both domestic and foreign (FDI), while the State was expected to assume a facilitating role and engage more in the social sector, such as education and health, as well as in infrastructure where private sector involvement was anticipated to be minimal. It prioritized agriculture and rural development to produce sufficient productive jobs and eliminate poverty. 

Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-2007) - Target Growth: 8%; Actual Growth: 7.6 %

Acknowledging that economic growth cannot be the only purpose of the national plan, the Tenth Plan included 'monitorable objectives' for other critical development indicators in addition to the 8% growth target. The objectives included the elimination of gender disparities in literacy and wage rates, the decrease of infant and maternal mortality rates, the enhancement of literacy, the provision of access to  drinking water and the remediation of significantly contaminated rivers, among others. Governance was seen as a determinant of development, while agriculture was identified as the primary driving engine of the economy. The state's role in planning was to be augmented via the participation of Panchayati Raj Institutions. State-specific allocation of objectives for economic and social development aimed at attaining equitable progress across all states.

Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2007-2012) - Target Growth: 9%; Actual Growth: 8%

During this phase of the plan, the Prime Minister was  Dr.Manmohan Singh.

By 2011–12, it aimed to: 

• Augment the enrollment of those aged 18–23 in higher education. The integration of formal, non-formal, remote and IT educational institutions was a primary emphasis.

• Expeditious and comprehensive growth (alleviation of poverty).

• An emphasis on the social sector and service provision.

• The empowerment derived from education and skill development.

• Enhanced rate of gender equality.

• To attain growth rates of 4%, 10% and 9% in agriculture, industry and services, correspondingly.

• Reduce the total fertility rate to 2.1.

Twelfth Five-Year Plan (2012-2017)

The Twelfth Plan began at a period marked by a second financial crisis in the global economy, triggered by the sovereign debt issues of the Eurozone that emerged in the last year of the Eleventh Plan. The crisis impacted many nations, including India. In 2011-12, our growth decreased to 6.2 percent and this trend persisted into the first year of the Twelfth Plan, during which the economy is projected to have expanded by just 5 percent. The Twelfth Plan underscores that our primary objective must be to restore the economy to vigorous development while guaranteeing that this growth is both inclusive and sustainable. 

The overarching objectives and ambitions of the Twelfth Plan are encapsulated in the subtitle: ‘Faster, Sustainable and More Inclusive Growth’. Inclusiveness is to be attained through poverty alleviation, fostering group equality and regional equity, diminishing inequality and empowering individuals, while sustainability encompasses ensuring environmental viability, enhancing human capital via improved health, education, skill acquisition, nutrition and information technology, as well as developing institutional capabilities and infrastructure such as power, telecommunications, roads.

WELFARE MEASURES UNDERTAKEN IN THE PRIME MINISTER NARENDRA MODI'S REGIME

1. The Deendayal Upadhyay Gram Jyoti Yojana (DUGJY) was inaugurated on July 25, 2015, in Patna.

• Objective: To implement changes and provide a consistent electricity supply to rural areas of the country

• Key Points:

  1. A subsidy of 43,033 crores has been allocated to the plan.

  2. BPL(below poverty line) will get a complimentary electricity connection with LED lights for Rs. 3000 per connection.

  3. The GARV-2 program has been launched to provide real-time information to about six hundred thousand localities around the country.

  4. Attaining complete electricity in rural areas.

2. The Pradhan Mantri Ujjawala Yojana (PMUY) was inaugurated on May 1, 2016, in Uttar Pradesh.

• Objective: Enhance social welfare by supplying LPG connections to Below Poverty Line household units nationwide.

• Key Points:

1. To eliminate the use of impure cooking fuels in favor of the superior and more efficient Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).

2. Financial assistance of Rs. 1600 for every LPG connection.

3. Carried out by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.

3. Urja Ganga Yojana (UGY) was inaugurated on October 24, 2016, in Varanasi.

• Objective: Construct a 2540 kilometer gas pipeline that would provide clean and environmentally friendly fuel to at least seven major metropolitan centers: Varanasi, Patna, Jamshedpur, Kolkata, Ranchi, Bhubaneswar and Cuttack.

• Key Points:

1. To ensure the supply of roughly 5,00,000 LPG gas cylinders throughout the next five years.

2. Twenty thousand automobiles will have access to CNG refueling facilities.

3. The project is implemented under the Union Minister of Petroleum and Natural Gas.

4. Deen Dayal Antyodaya Mission (DAM) was initiated in June 2011.

• Objectives:

1. 1. To support rural India till they escape poverty.

   2. To enhance employment opportunities in small enterprises, agriculture-based rural India and formal sectors.

• Key Points:

1. It is sometimes referred to as the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM).

2. SAMARTHYA - A compilation of 10 training programs focused on technical education developed under Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), facilitating opportunities for growth and development in business entrepreneurship.

5. Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan (PMSMA) was inaugurated on June 9, 2016.

• Objective: To improve the quality and breadth of Antenatal Care via the integration of Diagnostics and Counseling services as part of Reproductive Maternal Neonatal Child and Adolescent Health.

• Key Points:

1. Provides additional opportunities for every pregnant woman who has missed her prenatal appointments due to unforeseen circumstances.

2. To schedule care supply by a Doctor, Physician or Specialist throughout the second or third trimester.

3. Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan will occur on the ninth of each month continuously.

4. The Government of India expanded the number of high-risk pregnancy categories from 10 to 25 to ensure early detection and prompt management of complications, thereby reducing morbidity and mortality and ensuring institutional delivery by linking with the nearest First Referral Unit (FRU).

6. The Pradhan Mantri Vittiya Saksharta Abhiyaan (PMVSA) was inaugurated on December 1, 2016, by Human Resource Development Minister Prakash Javadekar in New Delhi.

• Objective: To promote cashless payment methods, such as credit or debit cards and digital wallets, in order to mitigate economic malpractices inside the country.

• Key Points:

1. To eradicate corruption and eliminate black money in India.

2. To motivate the general populace to adopt cashless transactions to stimulate the Indian economy.

3. The Government appealed to educational institutions to consistently update their work progress on their websites. Volunteers may submit their work progress on the scheme directly to the internet portal using the URL – http://mhrd.gov.in/vabhiyaan/upload.html.It is encouraged to make the work progress uploads on a regular basis.

7. Swachh Swasth Sarvatra Abhiyan (SSSA) was inaugurated on December 25, 2016, by the Union Ministry of Health in collaboration with the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation and the Ministry of Human Resource Development.

• Objective: To strengthen Health Centers and provide open defecation-free blocks.

• Key Points:

1. Provision of Rs 10 lakh to each Community Health Center (CHC) in Open Defecation Free (ODF) areas throughout the country.

2. Strengthened Group Health Centers (CHCs) in ODF blocks to get Kayakalp certification.

8. Digi Dhan Vyapar Yojana (DDVY) was inaugurated on December 15, 2016, by Prime Minister Narendra Modi.

Proposed by NITI Aayog, led by Arvind Panagariya.

• Objective: To enhance "Cashless Transactions"

• Key Points:

1. NITI Aayog signifies the "National Institution for Transforming India".

2. Incentives for merchants for each digital transaction up to Rs. 50,000, Rs. 5,000, and Rs. 2,500.

3. This initiative will highlight a fortunate winner among users who execute a higher volume of cashless transactions during a certain period. This method is designed for both vendors and customers.

4. Individuals engaging in cashless transactions with AEPS, USSD, UPI, and RuPay. They will qualify for this plan.

5. Incentives may be offered for purchases between Rs 50 to Rs 3000 (average residence).

6. The winners will be chosen by a random selection of the qualifying Transaction IDs. 

9. The NTR Arogya Raksha Scheme was inaugurated on December 1, 2016, in Vijayawada.

• Aim: To provide medical services to the general public by offering a facility for those classified as Above Poverty Line (APL) for an annual premium of Rs. 1200.

• Key Points:

1. Provides medical coverage of up to 2,00,000 and complementary treatment.

2. Provides therapeutic interventions for 1,044 illnesses.

3. The freshly married pair, whether the spouse or husband belongs to another state, may be registered under one family by paying the whole annual payment.

4. Individuals must enroll in this plan at any Mee Seva Center during the designated time frame each year.

10. Digi-Locker was initiated on 1 July 2015.

• Objective: To provide a secure repository of documents in digital format.

• Key Points: Facilitating the dissemination of electronic records via the mentioned archives, the advanced record includes the URLs of documents issued by governmental agencies or other entities. The transmitted archives include all documents uploaded by the user, each not exceeding 10 MB in size.

11. The Atal Amrit Abhiyan (AAA) was inaugurated on December 25, 2016, coinciding with the 92nd birth anniversary of Atal Bihari Vajpayee.

• Objective: To provide medical coverage for 437 conditions, including 5 fundamental disorders.

• Key Points:

1. The initiative commenced  on April 1, 2017.

2. A Health/Smart Card will be provided for Rs 100. A total of 437 diseases are categorized into six groups: renal, cardiovascular, tumor, burns, neonatal and neurological problems.

12. Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana (PMGKY) was inaugurated in December 2016.

• Objective: To improve the financial status of impoverished persons

• Key Points:

1. Coordinating the Garib Kalyan Mela and promoting national development.

2. The PMGKAY Scheme will guarantee efficient and consistent execution of the National Food Security Act (NFSA). The One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC) project facilitates the mobility of ration cards, allowing beneficiaries to get food grains from any Fair Price Shop (FPS) nationwide at standardized National Food Security Act (NFSA) entitlements and prices. The provision of free food grains would simultaneously guarantee consistent execution of mobility under the One Nation One Ration Card (ONORC) initiative nationwide, therefore enhancing this choice-driven platform. 

13. The Nagar Uday Scheme (NUS) 

It was inaugurated on December 25, 2016, coinciding with the birthday of former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, initiated by Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh, Shivraj Singh Chouhan.

• Objective: To provide advantages to indigenous people and elevate their level of living. 

• Aim: To regularise unauthorised areas by granting residents ownership rights to over 40 lakh people in the national capital. 

• Key Points:

1. To provide advantages on salaried people via welfare programs and initiatives.

2. Till March 2024, around 4,75,000 residents in unauthorized colonies submitted applications for ownership rights under the plan.

14. Willful Disclosure and Surcharge Waiver Scheme initiated on November 19, 2016, by the Government of Haryana.

• Objective: To announce tampered or defective meters for all customer classes with an approved load of up to 5KW and for small local and non-residential consumers with an endorsed load of up to 2KW in rural areas.

• Key Points:

1. Relevant to consumers under the aforementioned three categories who were in default as of September 30, 2016

2. To replace obsolete meters with new electronic meters within a three-day timeframe.

3. No verification throughout the operational period of the plan for clients with loads up to 5KW.

15. The Pradhan Mantri Zero Deficit Zero Effect Scheme (ZED) was initiated in 2016 by Prime Minister Narendra Modi.

• Objective: To mitigate the detrimental effects of goods on environmental conditions.

• Key Features:

1. Small and Medium Enterprises organizations which take after the rules set by ZED (Zero Deficit) and meet the norms set by the ZED will be granted ZED confirmation alongside different advantages.

2. Increased motivation to achieve "Zero Deficits" in order to ensure excellent delivery.

3. To facilitate a sustainable environment and enhancement.

16. Kayakalp Award Scheme started on May 15, 2015, by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.

• Objective: 

1. To enhance cleanliness and promote overall well-being in hospitals, clinics and public spaces.

2. To enhance and evaluate public healthcare facilities that exemplify exemplary adherence to established standards of hygiene and infection control.

• Key Points: Various parameters on which the execution of Health Facilities Center would be judged are as Hospital or Facility Upkeep, Sanitation and cleanliness, Waste Management, Infection control, Support Services, Hygiene Promotion.

17. E-Nirvan: Online Tax Grievance Resolution Scheme, initiated on September 8, 2016, by the CBDT.

• Objective: To reduce instances of tax evasion and to provide assistance via electronic media.

• Key Points:

1. Tasks will be conducted in a paperless environment under the supervision of an assessment officer from the IT office.

2. All individuals will have the capability to monitor their complaints and get responses to them.

3. An alternative and dedicated platform for grievance redressal in the Income Tax Business Application.

18. Mission Bhagiratha: Safe Drinking Water Initiative, inaugurated on August 7, 2016, in Telangana.

• Objective: To provide clean drinking water to all residents of the State via dedicated water pipeline systems.

• Key Points:

1. The state administration has proposed a water matrix initiative to provide a viable and robust solution to the problem of clean drinking water.

2. The ‘Bhagiratha’ mission will provide 100 liters of clean drinking water to every person in rural areas and 150 liters in urban areas.

19. The Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) was initiated by the Government of India on January 13, 2016.

• Aim: To provide protection, coverage and financial assistance to farmers in the event of crop failure due to natural disasters, pests or diseases.

• Key Points:

1. It replaced the National Agriculture Insurance Scheme (NAIS) and modified NAIS.

2. Encompasses over 50 percent of the entire cultivated land in our nation throughout the following three years.

3. Provides a consistent premium rate of 2 percent for kharif crops and 1.5 percent for Rabi crops.

4. All efforts are being made and will persist to prioritize the saturation of all farmers in the North Eastern States. The central government allocates 90% of the premium subsidies to the North Eastern States. However, owing to the voluntary nature of the plan and the limited gross cropped area in the North Eastern States, provisions have been established to prevent the forfeiture of money and to facilitate their reallocation to other development projects and initiatives that need funding. 

20. Prime Minister Ujjwala Plan

The Union Government initiated the ‘Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana’ (PMUY) social welfare plan on May 1, 2016, under the leadership of Hon'ble Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi.

• Aim: To strive for a smoke-free Rural India and seeks to assist five crore households, particularly women living below the poverty line (BPL), by providing subsidized LPG connections nationwide by 2019. 

• Key Points:

1. The effort will promote the use of LPG and aid in alleviating health concerns, air pollution, and deforestation.

2. The Union Cabinet, chaired by Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi, has sanctioned the expansion of the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) to provide 7.5 million LPG connections over a three-year period from the Financial Year 2023-24 to 2025-26.

3. The allocation of 75 lakhs extra Ujjwala connections would increase the overall number of PMUY recipients to 10.35 crores.

4. As of December 23, 2024, the total number of connections provided under the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana is 103,346,386. As of December 23rd, the number of connections released under UJJwala 2.0 is 23,489,757.

21. PM Matritva Vandana Yojana (PM Maternity Support Scheme)

Formerly referred to as the Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana.

This is a maternity benefit initiative administered by the Government of India. It was first introduced in 2010. The main aim of the Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY), initiated on January 1, 2017, and subsequently altered as part of Mission Shakti from April 1, 2022, is PMMVY 2.0.

• Objectives:

1. To provide a monetary incentive for partial reimbursement of income loss during pregnancy, enabling women to have sufficient rest before and after childbirth; 

2. to enhance health-seeking behavior among Pregnant Women and Lactating Mothers (PW&LM).

• Key Points

1. The project is implemented by the Ministry of Women and Child Development. It is a conditional cash transfer initiative for pregnant and breastfeeding women aged 19 and above for their first live birth.

2. Disbursement of incentives to 2,46,000 mothers of second female children totaling ₹147.8 crores. A total direct cash transfer of Rs 321.57 crores was disbursed to 814,612 recipients on this occasion. Since its start, almost 3.19 crore people have received financial assistance totaling more than Rs. 14,424.57 crores. 

22. Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan 

Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan (RGSA) was launched on 24th April 2018 as an umbrella scheme of the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Government of India. Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan was launched in 2018 by the Honorable Prime Minister, a comprehensive initiative of the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Government of India. 

• Objectives: To enhance the capacities of institutions for rural local governance, facilitating their ability to address local development needs, devise participatory plans through technology, and efficiently allocate resources to attain sustainable solutions to local issues related to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). 

• Key Points:

1. To ensure proper execution of the program, money consumption is meticulously monitored with the States via meetings, video conferences, and the Public Financial Management System (PFMS).

2. A Training Management Portal (TMP) is established to oversee real-time training delivered by States/UTs under the plan.

23. The Samagra Shiksha

Samagra Shiksha scheme was launched in the year 2018. This Scheme  is a comprehensive initiative for school education including all levels from pre-school to class XII. The program views school education as a continuum and aligns with Sustainable Development Goal for Education (SDG-4). 

• Aims:

1. To facilitate the execution of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009

2. To congruent with the recommendations of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. 

• Key Points:

1. The project aims to ensure that all students get a superior education in an equitable and inclusive classroom environment that addresses their diverse origins, linguistic needs, and differing academic abilities, while promoting their active engagement in the learning process.

2. The initiative has been extended for five years, namely from 2021-22 to 2025-26.

3. The Scheme has been implemented as a Centrally Sponsored initiative in collaboration with State and Union Territory Governments to assist in the universalization of access and enhancement of the quality of school education nationwide.

24. Ayshman Bharat Yojana

Ayushman Bharat, a flagship scheme of the Government of India, was launched as recommended by the National Health Policy in September 2017.

• Aims: 

1. To achieve the objective of Universal Health Coverage (UHC).

2. To fulfill the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and their foundational promise to 'leave no one behind.'

3. To provide health coverage of Rs. 5 lakhs annually per household for secondary and tertiary care hospitalization to about 550 million beneficiaries, or 123.4 million families among the lowest 40% of India's population.  

• Key Points:

1. Beneficiaries eligible under the system may generate their Ayushman card at any time throughout the year.

2. Eligible beneficiaries may access cashless and paperless healthcare services pertaining to hospitalization at over 29,000 accredited facilities nationwide. The most recent national master of the Health Benefit Package (HBP) offers cashless healthcare services for 1949 procedures across 27 medical disciplines, including General Medicine, Surgery, Cardiology, and Oncology.

3. As of June 30, 2024, a total of 7.37 crore hospital admissions amounting to Rs. 1 lakh crores have been sanctioned under the plan. 

25. Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Surakshaevam Utthaan Mahabhiyan Yojana (PM-KUSUM Scheme) 

It was launched in March 2019 by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), to subsidize farmers to install solar irrigation pumps for cultivation. Each farmer will receive a 60% subsidy to set up tube wells and pump sets. They will also get 30% of the total cost as a loan from the Government.

The primary objective of the PM KUSUM Scheme is to make cutting-edge technology available to our farmers and provide sources for de-dieselized irrigation to the agricultural sector. 

The main objectives of this scheme are:

1. The solar pumps assist our farmers in much more effective and eco-friendly irrigation as these are capable of generating safer energy.

2. In addition, the pump sets comprise an energy power grid that generates more energy than diesel-driven pumps. Farmers will be able to sell the extra power to our Government directly to enhance their income.

• Key Points:

1. The initiative empowers farmers by offering dependable, economical energy options, therefore diminishing their reliance on expensive diesel pumps.

2. Numerous solar pumps have been deployed nationwide, substituting diesel pumps and offering farmers a sustainable energy alternative.

3. The initiative has enhanced India's renewable energy potential, advancing the nation towards its climate objectives.

4. The initiative received enthusiastic participation from farmers, cooperative groups, and other stakeholders, indicating its effectiveness in practice.

26. The Jal Jeevan Mission

The Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) was launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on August 15, 2019.

• Aims:

1. To provide safe and sufficient drinking water via individual home tap connections to all rural families in India by 2024. 

2. To establish a movement for water, consequently prioritizing it for everyone.

• Key Points:

1. The program requires sustainability measures for sources, including recharge and reuse via gray water management, water conservation, and rainfall harvesting.

2. The Jal Jeevan Mission would adopt a community-centric strategy for water, including extensive information, education, and communication as a core component of the effort.

3. The Jal Jeevan Mission will use a community-focused strategy for water management, including extensive information, education, and communication as a core component of the effort.

4. As of August 12, 2024, the Jal Jeevan Mission has successfully supplied tap water connections to an additional 11.82 crore rural families, resulting in total coverage exceeding 15.07 crore households, which represents 77.98% of all rural households in India.

5. The mission has achieved a crucial milestone, significantly affecting the lives of rural people by ensuring reliable access to potable water in their residences.

27. The Garib Kalyan Rojgar Abhiyaan (GKRA) is a 125-day Abhiyan launched by Hon’ble Prime Minister on 20th June, 2020.

• Aims: To boost employment and livelihood opportunities for migrant workers returning to villages and similarly affected citizens in rural areas.

• Key Points:

1. The Abhiyaan implemented a multifaceted approach to deliver immediate employment and livelihood opportunities to the distressed, saturate villages with public infrastructure, and create livelihood assets to stimulate income-generating activities. It emphasized 25 initiatives (including those under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme) across 116 selected districts in six states: Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.

2. The GKRA concluded on 22 October 2020, providing 50.78 crores person-days of employment at an expense of Rs. 39,293 crores during the initiative.

3. Employment amounting to 50.78 crores person-days was generated at a total cost of Rs. 39,293 crore during the Abhiyaan. 

4. 28. Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM-POSHAN) In September 2021, the Union Cabinet sanctioned the Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM-POSHAN) initiative to provide one hot prepared meal in Government and Government-aided schools, with a cash allocation of Rs 1.31 trillion. The initiative supplanted the national program for mid-day meals at educational institutions, known as the Mid-day Meal Scheme.

28. Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM-POSHAN)

In September 2021, the Union Cabinet sanctioned the Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM-POSHAN) initiative to provide one hot prepared meal in Government and Government-aided schools, with a cash allocation of Rs 1.31 trillion. The initiative supplanted the national program for mid-day meals at educational institutions, known as the Mid-day Meal Scheme.

• Key Points:

1. The State Governments and Union Territory Administrations have the ultimate responsibility for the effective operation of the system, which includes delivering hot, prepared, and nutritious meals to qualifying children.

2. The Government of India has promulgated comprehensive criteria on quality, safety, and cleanliness to guarantee the provision of high-quality meals under the Scheme to all States and Union Territories.

3. The guidelines are available on the official website https://pmposhan.education.gov.in. These guidelines, among other things, urge schools to acquire Agmark quality and branded products for meal preparation, offer training to Cook-cum-Helpers, and ensure that meals are tasted by 2-3 members of the School Management Committee, including at least one teacher, prior to serving to students. 

29. The Amrit Bharat Station

The Amrit Bharat Station Scheme was launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. in February, 2023. 

• Aims: To redevelop 1309 railway stations all around the country. 

• Key Points:

1. The reconstruction of all stations would incur an expenditure of Rs 25,000 crores. 

2. Rejuvenates and upgrades the current railway stations to line with international quality standards.

3. The Amrit Bharat Station Scheme would provide international amenities to travelers and enhance their overall travel experience. 

30. Prime Minister - Surya Ghar Yojna 

Free Electricity Scheme Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. The Muft Bijli Yojana is a governmental initiative designed to provide free electricity to homes in India. The initiative was inaugurated by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on February 15, 2024. 

• Key Points:

1. The scheme offers a subsidy of up to 40 percent to families, enhancing the affordability and accessibility of renewable energy. Within a span of nine months, 630,000 installations have been accomplished, yielding a remarkable monthly installation rate of 70,000, which is tenfold the average before the project. The initiative aims to help one crore families and is projected to save the government ₹75,000 crores yearly in regard to power expenses.

2. This effort enables millions to embrace renewable energy, strengthening India's commitment to sustainable growth and energy innovation.

3. The subsidy granted under the system fluctuates according to the household's average monthly power use and the appropriate rooftop solar plant capacity. 

BIGGEST BENEFICIARIES OF GOVERNMENT POLICIES UNDER PRIME MINISTER NARENDRA MODI'S GOVERNMENT

Prime Minister Narendra Modi stated that Dalits, OBCs, and Tribals are the biggest beneficiaries of his government's pro-poor initiatives, claiming that its most significant accomplishment over the past decade is the upliftment of 25 crore individuals from poverty. This announcement was made during the inauguration and foundation-laying ceremony of 1.3 lakh houses under the Prime Minister Awas Yojana (PMAY) via video conference on February 10, 2024. Prime Minister Modi said that the poor, the youth, farmers, and women are the pillars of a developed India.

Perspectives of the beneficiary: 

Balaram Bhallavi and his family may finally get enough housing. For years, a tiled hut in a sun-drenched village in India's central Madhya Pradesh state has housed Mr. Bhallavi, his wife, and their four school-aged children. A narrow mud-floored lobby has a stove, some plastic chairs, two rope beds, and deteriorating clotheslines.

Following a three-year delay, the Bhallavi family received 120,000 rupees ($1,445; £1,136) from a program administered by Prime Minister Narendra Modi's administration last year, enabling them to start construction of a new home.Since 2016, about 25 million residences have been constructed under the rural public housing initiative known as the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Prime Minister's Housing Scheme). It is among the over 300 government initiatives done under  Modi’s government.

Since assuming office in 2014, Mr. Modi has augmented India's welfare initiatives, with a specific focus on women and farmers. This includes the provision of cooking gas, free grain, housing, toilets, piped  water, electricity and bank accounts, and the enhancement of a longstanding employment guarantee program. A multitude of advantages—pensions, subsidies, loans, and scholarships—are dispersed via cash transfers to bank accounts associated with biometric identification cards possessed by over a billion Indians. Large banners of Mr. Modi advertising these initiatives as his personal ‘guarantees’ was seen  in the aftermath of the announcements of these policies.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi asserts that his administration has allocated over 34 trillion rupees ($400 billion; £316 billion) in the last decade, providing direct financial assistance to low-income families and benefiting more than 900 million individuals. An annual disbursement of 6,000 rupees to over 110 million farmers is one of the greatest cash transfer programs globally. Officials assert that the transfers have mitigated corruption and reduced expenses. Economist Arvind Subramanian refers to this as Mr. Modi's ‘New Welfarism,’ which prioritizes spending for basic private goods like toilets above the expansion of public goods like primary education and healthcare.’New Welfarism’ distinctly diverges from conventional welfare theories in Europe and the United States.

SHORTCOMINGS

The utilization of funds for government programs in India is a multifaceted subject. The government has endeavored to guarantee proper use. Yet, the problems about misutilization and underutilization of public monies persist. 

Causes of Inefficient Utilization 

• Politicians often entice voters with irrational incentives, exerting pressure on government finances and undermining prudent expenditure.

• The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) possesses limited authority, as it can only audit expenditures post-factum, failing to ensure judicious allocation of funds.

• Nepotism within political spheres results in inexperienced successors occupying significant roles, culminating in inefficacy. - Political rivalry between governing and opposition parties obstructs collaboration and unified initiatives.

• Public illiteracy and diminished civic engagement impede citizens' awareness of their rights and governmental policies, preventing them from demanding accountability.

THE IMPACT OF NARENDRA MODI'S POLICIES ON INDIA'S ECONOMY OVER THE PAST DECADE

The Modi administration has sought to enhance the lives of average Indians; however, employment opportunities remain scarce for some demographics. The current ruling Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), under the leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, is pursuing a third term in power. The surveys indicate that it will accomplish this purpose. The Modi government's performance is commendable when assessed just on economic growth metrics.

From 2014 to 2022, India's gross domestic product (GDP) per capita increased from US$5,000 (£4,000) to over US$7,000, representing an almost 40% rise over eight years. These calculations use buying power parity, a method for measuring overall purchasing power throughout time and across nations. This expansion transpired despite a misguided effort at the outset of Modi's first tenure to withdraw ₹500 (£4.80) and ₹1000 (£9.60) banknotes from circulation. The elimination of the notes resulted in a significant cash deficit, which reduced the per capita GDP growth from 6.98% in 2016 to 5.56% in 2017. The International Monetary Fund forecasts that India's GDP would expand by 6.5% in 2024. This surpasses China's anticipated growth of 4.6% and beyond that of any other major economy. The United Kingdom's GDP is projected to expand by 0.6% in 2024.

THE CURRENT WELFARE PARADIGM

During its second term, the Modi administration prioritized the provision of public goods and social welfare programs with less corruption. This initiated a substantial rural road development initiative and the registration of about 99% of Indian people in Aadhaar, a digital identification system associated with fingerprints and iris scans. The Aadhaar implementation has enabled national and state governments to directly provide assistance to the impoverished via their Aadhaar-linked bank accounts. It has also mitigated the leakage in the distribution of subsidies to impoverished families, which has historically plagued India's welfare delivery system. The government supplied essential products, such as toilets and cooking cylinders, which are typically provided by private entities, in substantial quantities. This resulted in what Indian economist and former Chief Economic Advisor Arvind Subramanian termed ‘New Welfarism’ in India.

The implementation of assistance programs transpired most swiftly during the epidemic. The government's food subsidy expenditure surged about five fold from 2019–2020 to 2021–2022, facilitating access to inexpensive food grains for the populace. Additional areas of achievement have also been identified. The percentage of Indian villages having electricity connection increased from 88% in 2014 to 99.6% in 2020. Currently, 71.1% of individuals in India own an account with a financial institution, an increase from 48.3% in 2014. The substantial financial transfers, along with enhanced supply of products and services to India's impoverished population, have resulted in the BJP's heightened support among disadvantaged communities.

THE SCARCITY OF QUALITY EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES

The Modi administration has expanded India's economy. However, it has not effectively generated gainful employment for the substantial segment of India's labor population that is unskilled and impoverished. Approximately 40% of the workforce is employed in agriculture, whereas just 20% are engaged in manufacturing or commercial services, including IT. Pre-election studies indicate that rising unemployment and inflation are significant concerns for several voters.

The Make in India initiative, introduced upon Modi's accession to office in 2014, sought to diminish the expenses associated with doing business in India. This was replaced by the more contemporary production-linked incentive program in November 2023. The initiative provided US$24 billion in industry incentives to enhance domestic output across essential manufacturing areas, including electronic items and drones. Nevertheless, the proportion of production attributed to manufacturing in 2022 remained unchanged from the level seen when Prime Minister Modi first assumed office.

DOES "MAKE IN INDIA" MISSION HAVE AN OPERATIONAL POLICY?

This is one question that most policy makers, social and natural scientists have been asking since that date. Let us recount. The thrust of the program is to combine four major macro objectives-skill enhancement to move the nation from jobless to full employment, to push productions in as many as 25 major economic sectors with technological shifts, to meet both domestic and export windows on a path truly of Inclusive growth, and making India a globalized economy (DIPP, 2015; www.makeinIndia.com). Several specific programs were also announced on the same lines from time to time. Notable ones are: Skill India, Digital India, Swachh Bharat, Smart City India, and Startup India.

The government has indicated that it would need time to generate momentum for manufacturing, since its contribution to GDP remains below the levels of 2013-14, despite the completion of a decade since the inception of the Make in India initiative, in 2023-24, the manufacturing sector's contribution to value creation is 15.9%, a decrease from 16.7% of GDP (in constant prices) in 2013-14. The government's objective is to have a 25% proportion of manufacturing in GDP by 2030. DPIIT Secretary Amardeep Singh Bhatia said at a media conference that it would need time to generate momentum.

In several locations, the constraints are not just related to investment but also to technology. As per the observation  of Amardeep Singh Bhatia, "Investment must foster technology, enhance capacity and skills; when these elements converge, momentum is generated," in response to inquiries on the inability of Make in India to elevate the manufacturing sector's contribution to GDP. The Department  for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) secretary also observed that the government's emphasis is on integrating technology with investments inside the Make in India initiative.

To replicate China's success in labor-intensive manufacturing, India needs more profound structural changes in its product, labour, and financial markets. However, this will pose significant political challenges since it necessitates confronting India's influential businesses and trade unions. As the Modi administration assumed office for the third term, it is likely that the prevailing unemployment problem is going to be effectively tackled.

BILLBOARD GOVERNANCE

Under Modi’s government, the bulk of 906 initiatives had financial constraints. During the previous term, the Union government underpaid 71.9% of the 906 central sector initiatives it administered. In one out of every five initiatives, the government allocated less than fifty percent of the budgeted amount.

Five years ago, the Narendra Modi administration sparked headlines with a financial commitment. Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman said in her first budget statement in July 2019 that the Government of India has resolved to offer pension benefits to about three crore retail merchants and small shopkeepers. Upon announcing the scheme's name, Pradhan Mantri Karam Yogi Maan Dhan, among the jubilant applause in the House, the camera focused on Prime Minister Narendra Modi, whose administration committed to provide Rs 750 crores in the first year of the initiative, which guarantees a monthly pension of Rs 3,000. As interest waned, so too did the commitment. In its first year, the government spent just Rs 155.9 crores, creating a huge financing imbalance of Rs 594 crores. Over the following three years, expenditure expectations dropped to negligible figures. In the preceding fiscal year, a nominal allocation of Rs 3 crores was made, of which just Rs 10 lakhs was used on the program, as per the most recent budget statistics. In the five years after its introduction, the government pledged to provide Rs 1,133 crores but ultimately disbursed just Rs 162 crores, representing a mere 14% of the committed sum. Official data indicates that the plan has slightly more than 50,000 participants as of January 2023. In March 2023, the Parliamentary Standing Committee inquired of the government over the failure of the pension program. The government said that this pension system conflicted with another scheme with a similar name.

The government said that individuals confused Pradhan Mantri Karam Yogi Maan Dhan with another pension program, Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maan Dhan was introduced only four months before, highlighting a notable deficiency in creativity regarding the identification of new pan-India initiatives, while seeking to evade inquiries about governmental shortcomings. Prime Minister's Labor Yogi Maan Dhan aimed to include 42 crores workers in the unorganised sector. But this pension system also collapsed, papers indicate. It had reached just 43 lakhs of the 42 crores potential beneficiaries within three years of its inception.

When the Parliamentary Standing Committee questioned the government, it transferred some of the responsibility to a third pension system of an earlier vintage -- Atal Pension Yojana established in 2015 for unorganised sector workers. This system already included those targeted by the subsequent two pension schemes. The government commissioned a think tank to assess its pension programs. The think tank's research advised the termination of Shram Yogi Maan Dhan and its amalgamation with Atal Pension Yojana. The Ministry was considering the amalgamation of the shopkeepers’ pension system with the pension program for unorganised workers.

REPORTS FROM THE STANDING COMMITTEE OF THE PARLIAMENT

The three pension systems may have experienced varied levels of failure, however they epitomize Narendra Modi's inclination for billboard governance—prominent, attention-grabbing projects that are sustained long enough to impress the public memory but are then defunded after the initial fervor subsides.

The Collective analyzed budgetary allocations for 906 central sector initiatives identified by the Union government in its budgets throughout a five-year period from FY 2019-2020 to FY 2023-24 to ascertain the expenditures of the Modi administration on these schemes. The government underpaid 651 initiatives, or 71.9% of the total 906 schemes. In one out of every five programs, the government spent half or less than the amount it had pledged. The most severe budget reduction was allocated to welfare programs. At least 75% of the assistance programs received less money than what the government had pledged.

The subsequent primary area the government concentrated on reducing budgeted money was infrastructure projects, including track renewals, roads initiatives, and renewable energy grids. The government reduced financing allocated in the budget for about 73% of the infrastructure projects assessed. Defense, industrial and public sector undertaking-related programs ranked third, fourth and fifth for budgetary and expenditure discrepancies. The Collective classified schemes into these categories based on a broad comprehension, since these concepts are not legally defined. In several systems, the categories may intersect.

It should be mentioned that a tactic used by the government is to rebrand, rename, repackage, and reconstruct existing programs, some of which are decades old, with minor modifications. For instance, The Collective's prior study revealed how the government used the highly publicized PM AASHA as a mere façade before elections. The government allocated funds to the AASHA system, designed to provide minimum support prices for pulses and oilseeds, only during the 2019 and 2024 elections, with no expenditure in the interim. The initiative was included in the 2019 BJP Lok Sabha platform as one of the programs aimed at tripling farmers' earnings. The primary mechanism was a longstanding direct purchase initiative from the UPA period, rebranded as the PM AASHA program. 

Although most programs could not meet their projected allocations over five years, the cumulative actual spending of all 906 initiatives exceeds the overall budgeted predictions. Data indicates two explanations for this: Initially, government expenditure on Covid-related initiatives significantly exceeded the budgetary projections. This, however, does not exonerate the government from inadequate expenditure, since programs were underfunded both before and throughout the epidemic. Secondly, as previously noted, the government increased expenditure on several social programs in anticipation of the 2024 Lok Sabha elections after years of declining budgetary allocations.

CONCLUSION

The implementation of government policies can be a complex and challenging process, and requires careful planning and coordination to ensure success. By considering the above factors, governments can ensure that their policies are well-designed and effective in addressing the problems they are intended to solve. The massive election mandate for Prime Minister Narendra Modi's NDA-II entails a significant expectation for responsive government and effective administration. The mantra of sabka saath, sabka vikas, sabka vishwas necessitates both policy and programmatic measures that address the 'revolution of growing expectations' and 'aspirational' India within a swiftly evolving domestic and global landscape. Despite the numerous barriers, fresh opportunities for successful intervention arise. 

RECOMMENDATION

In spite of the shortcomings as mentioned above, the government can overcome these shortfalls by strictly following the basic rules of spending the money as allocated in the financial year itself. Keeping the money in a project without spending is not going to serve any purpose especially in improving the poor segment of the society.

REFERENCES

1. Government Policies - The Economic Times, available at economic times.iniatoimes.com>govt.policies visited  on 19th September, 2024 at 1.16 p.m

2. Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation Government available at mohira.gov.in, visited on 5th October, 2024 at 16.04 p.m.

3. Government Policies, Actions, Target Minorities.available at hrw.org/news/2021/02/19/India.government-policies actions-target -minorities,visited on 12th October, 2024 at 3.02 p.m.

4. Policy challenges 2019-2024, charting a New Course for India and Navigating Policy challengers in the 21st Century, Centre for Policy Research available at cprindia.org, visited on 13th September at 11.11 a.m..

5. “Clean India Mission beyond politics: PM Modi” The Economic Times. PTI, visited on 2nd October, 2024 at 11.38 a.m.

6. ‘245 + Narendra Modi Schemes List 2024, Namo Yojana List 2024 Complete List Schemes’ available at sarkariyojana.com,visited on 4th December, 2024 at 2.09 p.m.

7. Nithya Subramanian. “In charts:How Modi’s government’s schemes impacted the lives of rural Indians” available at scroll.inarticle/945229/in chart.visited on 5th October, 2024 at 21.11 a.m.

8. Meenakshi Gopinath,’Policy Challenges 2019-2024: A Forward’ available at https://cprindia.org visited on 19th November 2024 at 11:32 a.m..

9. ’How India’s Economy has fared under Ten Years of Narendra Modi’ available at unu.edu/article/how-indias-econmy.visisted on 25th November 2024 12.29 p.m

10. Gopal Kadekodi, ‘Make in India : Policy Drives and Challenges’ available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325341250,visted on 4th December, 2024 at 13.04 p.m.

11. ’Make in India fails to lift manufacturing share in GDP in 10 years’ The New Indian Express, updated on 26th September, 2024, available at newindianexpress.com/business/2024. Visited on 4th December, 2024 at 14.07 p.m. 

12. “Free water, housing, food: Modi’s $400bn welfare bet to win Indian elections” available at https://english.khabarhub.com/2024/09/354829, visited on 05th January, 2025 at 18.03 p.m.

13. Dalits, OBCs, tribals benefited most from schemes: PM available at https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/dalits-obcs-tribals-biggest-beneficiaries-of-government-schemes-pm/articleshow/107589808.cms,visited on 05th January, 2025 at 22.14 p.m.

14. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=2040949 visited on 06th January, 2025 at 12.26 p.m.

15. https://pradhanmantriyojana.co.in/vittiya-saksharata-abhiyan-vsa,visited on 06th January, 2025 at 12.31 p.m.

16. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1990696,visited on 06th January, 2025 at 12.58 p.m.

17. https://www.99acres.com/articles/pm-uday-yojana-all-you-need-to-know.html, visited on 06th January, 2025 at 13.05 p.m.

18. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2089249,visited on 06th January, 2025 at 13.14 p.m.

19. https://pmuy.gov.in, visited on 06th January, 2025 at 13.26 p.m.

20. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1972272,visited on 06th January, 2025 at 14.40 p.m.

21. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1946678,visited on 06th January, 2025 at 14.37 p.m.

22. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1742287, visited on 06th January, 2025 at 14.54 p.m.

23. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2040860, visited on 06th January, 2025 at 15.12 p.m.

24. https://www.agriinsights.in/2024/08/pm-kusum-yojana.html,visited on 06th January, 2025 at 15.27 p.m.

25. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=2002712, visited on 06th January, 2025 at 15.34 p.m.

26. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1813766, visited on 06th January, 2025 at 15.43 p.m.

27. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2082323, visited on 06th January, 2025 at 15.51 p.m.

28. https://infrainfohub.com/amrit-bharat-station-scheme-railway-stations-list,visited on 06th January at 16.10 p.m.

29. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2081250, visited on 06th january, 2025 at 16.15 p.m.

INTRODUCTION 

The newly enacted criminal laws, i.e., Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 (“BNS”); Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 (“BNSS”); and Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023 (“BSA”) received the assent of the President of India on December 25, 2023. This transformative legislative endeavor aims to not only consolidate and streamline the existing criminal provisions, but also introduces new offenses, particularly in the realms of hate speech, terrorism, and acts impacting the nation’s sovereignty, unity, and integrity. Some of the significant amendments in the criminal procedural law include provisions addressing the timelines for investigations and trials, along with the introduction of trial in absentia against absconders. The procedural reforms also lay special emphasis on the integration of technology in the judicial process. 

Prior to the enactment of the aforesaid laws, on August 11, 2023, the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita Bill, 2023, Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita Bill, 2023 and the Bharatiya Sakshya Bill, 2023 were introduced in the Lok Sabha to repeal and replace the Indian Penal Code, 1860 (“IPC”), Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (“CrPC”), and the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 respectively. However, on December 12, 2023, these bills were withdrawn from consideration and subsequently, reintroduced with minor changes under new titles i.e., Bharatiya Nyaya (Second) Sanhita Bill, 2023; Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha (Second) Sanhita Bill, 2023; and Bharatiya Sakshya (Second) Bill, 2023. Thereafter, these amended bills were passed by the Lok Sabha on December 20, 2023, and by the Rajya Sabha on December 21, 2023. From July 1, 2024 the new criminal laws came into force. All the three laws have been referred to the relevant Parliamentary Standing Committee. Although the bills are enacted, they have become a major point of debate and discussion already. While some are applauding this move to decolonise the existing criminal infrastructure, many others have questioned the move as being abrupt and without proper public consultation. 

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the new legislations are – 

1. To replace the outdated criminal laws from the colonial era with a justice-oriented approach, using modern improvements in police investigations and court procedures.

2. To enhance transparency, accountability and efficiency within the criminal justice system. 

HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF INDIA'S CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM

The criminal law in India has an extensive and illustrious history that may be traced back to ancient times. The evolution of India's criminal justice system may be observed throughout its history, spanning various periods such as the Vedic age, Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Empire era and continuing to the present day. 

In the Vedic era, concepts derived from the teachings of the Rig Veda were utilized to establish punishments and uphold order, guided by the concept of Dharma. The initial criminal laws were established on the foundation of Dharma, a principle that prioritised the significance of ethical and moral principles within the community. The ancient Indian legal system was distinguished by an intricate framework of laws and regulations that governed diverse facets of life, encompassing crime and its consequences. During the Delhi Sultanate Era, there was further evolution that was influenced by sources such as Smriti and the adoption of Shariat law. During the era of the Mughal Empire, the Mughals established the Mahakuma-e-Adalat, a governmental division tasked with handling criminal and civil disputes in accordance with Islamic law. Nevertheless, this system presented several obstacles. Throughout the medieval era, India saw a succession of invasions, commencing in the 8th Century A.D., concluding in the 15th century, ultimately achieving stability during the period of the Mughal rule. The criminal law in question employed a classification system that categorised acts based on the corresponding consequences they deserved. This included the principle of retaliation, where punishment was equivalent to the harm caused, as well as specific penalties for theft and robbery. Additionally, discretionary penalties were also applied in certain cases. 

The issues encompassed the lack of differentiation between the judiciary and the executive branches, discrepancies in the enforcement of criminal laws, and occurrences of corruption. There was a significant change in perspective throughout the Colonial period. The East India Company (EIC) was instrumental in influencing this shift, in conjunction with the implementation of court systems and the creation of the High Court. These advancements established the basis for the implementation of codes in the 1860s. There was a significant change in perspective throughout the colonial period. These legislations have been modified from time to time according to suggestions from the Standing Committee and have been adopted by both chambers of Parliament.

Influences from social politics led to the enactment of these new laws. The need for a victim-priority judicial system, the need to regulate technology in light of the digital revolution and the shifting social norms were the main elements that affected the issue. There were other factors as well, like the existence of differing viewpoints among judges and judicial activism, which stressed inefficiencies and international obligations. While they acknowledged that there was room for improvement, they emphasised the importance of understanding and putting it into practice. In addition, a number of unresolved cases in various courts have been observed to be contributing to the delays in the administration of justice in India. Therefore, moving towards a modern legal system was essential. The call for revisions and amendments in legislation arises from the recognition that the current laws are antiquated vestiges of the colonial period, embodying a criminal justice system that sought to suppress rather than administer justice. Numerous portions of the antiquated laws have become redundant and obsolete, necessitating a comprehensive revision. The President granted her approval for the new criminal laws on December 25th, 2023. 

SALIENT FEATURES OF NEW LEGISLATIONS 

1. Introduces community work as a form of punishment for minor infractions.

2. Terrorist acts have been characterised as an action that is intended or likely to pose a danger to the unity, integrity, sovereignty, security, or economic security of India, or actions that are intended or likely to instill fear among the population. 

3. Acts of mob lynching are now subject to severe penalties, including the possibility of capital punishment or life imprisonment, if carried out by a group of five or more individuals based on factors such as race, caste, community, sex, place of birth, language, or personal belief. 

4. Trials to be conducted in absentia for fleeing criminals. 

5. Summary trials now encompass crimes with a maximum punishment of three years, with the objective of resolving over 40% of cases in sessions courts. 

6. Videography has been made mandatory during the process of search and seizure. A charge sheet is not considered genuine unless it includes such a recording. 

7. The court will grant bail to a first-time offender who has completed one-third of their jail sentence. 

8. Forensic specialists should be employed in all instances where the penalty entails a minimum of seven years of incarceration. 

HIGHLIGHTS OF NEW CRIMINAL LAWS

Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023

The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 (“BNS”) succeeded the Indian Penal Code of 1860 (“IPC”) by including 358 sections (511 from the IPC), retaining most of the provisions from the IPC, introducing new offences, removing offences that had been invalidated by the court, and increasing penalties for various offences. 

• New Offences

1. Community service – certain minor offences now offer “community service” as an alternative punishment to imprisonment. 

2. Mob lynching as a separate offense - the BNS introduces “mob lynching” as a distinct offence, carrying a maximum penalty of death. 

3. Definition of “terrorist act” – the legislation introduces a distinct offence for “terrorist act”, covering acts that pose a threat to India’s unity, integrity, sovereignty, security, economic security or spread terror among any group. 

• Deletions

1. Adultery – the offence of adultery under Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code has been excluded from the new criminal laws in accordance with the ruling of the Supreme Court in the case of Joseph Shine v. Union of India in 2018. 

2. Unnatural sexual offences – Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code, which made homosexuality and other "unnatural" sexual practices illegal, has been entirely repealed. 

3. Thugs – IPC Section 310 was completely deleted. 

4. Gender Neutrality – Gender neutral language has been included in some child-related regulations. 

• Additional Changes 

1. Death by negligence – with the enactment of the BNS, the maximum sentence for causing a death by negligence has increased from two to five years (two years for doctors). 

2. Sedition – the offence of sedition has been incorporated in the BNS with a more expansive description under the new name of "deshdroh." 

3. Mandatory minimum sentence – mandatory minimum sentences are outlined in a number of provisions, which may restrict the amount of latitude available to judges.

4. Damage to public property – if there is damage to public property, the perpetrator will be fined based on the degree of the damage caused by them. 

5. Fake news – the BNS has criminalized the publishing of false and misleading information. 

• Key Issues 

1. Retention of IPC provisions on rape and sexual harassment - retaining the IPC's provisions on rape and sexual harassment means keeping the law as it is, eliminating Justice Verma Committee's 2013 recommendations for gender-neutral rape, and making marital rape a crime. 

2. Definitions of child offences are inconsistent – The BNS establishes that a minor is a person below the age of 18 years. However, there are discrepancies when it comes to the definition of a minor in the legislation, such as when it comes to age requirements for crimes such as rape, and specifically gang rape. 

3. Criminal liability of children – criminal responsibility begins at age seven and can extend up to age twelve depending on maturity, which may go against international guidelines.

Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023 

The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023 includes 170 sections; 24 of which have been altered, two have been added, and six of 167 have been repealed from the Indian Evidence Act, 1872. 

• Retained Provisions 

The following provisions have been retained in the BSA from the Indian Evidence Act of 1872 – 

1. Only admissible evidence may be presented by the parties in a legal procedure. 

2. The court will accept proven facts only if the evidence shows that the course of conduct was reasonable under the circumstances. 

3. Consent from police officers is usually not admissible unless it is signed by a Magistrate. 

• Important Modifications

The following are the key changes which have been made in the BSA from the Indian Evidence Act, 1872. 

1. The legal standing of electronic records is the same as that of traditional papers — The BSA, 2023 introduces crucial updates by equating the legal validity of electronic records, which includes data, information and documents which are created, stores, received or transmitted in electronic form, with that of traditional paper documents, ensuring that digital evidence holds the same weight in legal proceedings as physical documents. This reflects the evolving nature of record-keeping and communication, and how the legal standards are adapting to contemporary practices. 

2. Permits oral testimony to be submitted online — The BSA allowing for oral testimony to be submitted online modernizes the legal process by permitting witnesses to provide their testimonies remotely and without the need to be physically present in the courtroom. This addition in the BSA increases accessibility for those who face challenges in appearing before the court while also increasing the efficiency of legal proceedings by reducing delays associated with in-person testimonies. Further, this shift towards digital testimonies signifies the integration of technology within the judicial system, a major goal aimed to be achieved through the new legislations. 

3. Digital records fall within the category of secondary evidence — An important modification made is the inclusion of digital records within the category of secondary evidence, as electronic records as well as reproductions of electronic records can be submitted in legal proceedings. The BSA provides a legal framework for admissibility of digital records in court, including conditions to ensure their authenticity and reliability. 

4. Joint trials – A joint trial means trying more than one person for the same crime. A multi-person trial in which one of the accused has not complied with an arrest warrant will be considered a joint trial. 

• Key Issues 

The BSA, 2023, while presenting significant changes in the criminal justice system, also presents several key issues that have caused debate amongst legal scholars, practitioners, etc., raising concerns about its implementation and implications. 

1. Electronic Records

With regards to the inclusion of electronic records as admissible evidence, concerns have been raised as to potential tampering of electronic records during the process of search, seizure and investigation. Furthermore, it is provided by the legislation that in order for electronic records to be accepted as documents, they need to be verified. However, the legislation creates a contradiction as it also classifies electronic evidence as documents which may not require certification. 

2. Exclusion of the Suggestions of Law Commission and the Supreme Court 

One of the major criticisms of the new criminal laws is that they fail to incorporate several important recommendations made by the Law Commission of India and the Supreme Court in various landmark cases. These bodies have, over the years, provided suggestions with the aim of reforming and modernizing India’s criminal justice system. However, these recommendations and directives have not been incorporated into the new legislations, leading to concerns that the reforms may not be sufficient in addressing the challenges within the Indian criminal justice system and that the legislations may fail to achieve their intended goals of modernization and efficiency. 

Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 

The BNSS replaced the CrPC, 1973. It comprises of 531 sections, of which 177 have been revised, 9 have been added, and 14 have been repealed. 

• Key Provisions 

The key provisions of the BNSS, 2023 include – 

1. Hierarchy of courts – the BNSS, 2023 has eliminated the designation of the Metropolitan Magistrate, changing the structure of the judiciary by putting forward a modified magisterial system with the aim of streamlining judicial processes.

2. Mandated usage of electronic mode – the BNSS mandates the use of electronic modes for various judicial processes including during inquiry, trial and investigation phases, to improve efficiency and accessibility within the legal system. 

3. Detention of undertrials – the BNSS introduces new provisions regarding the detention of undertrials, including providing stricter guidelines for their detention. 

4. Restrictions on release on personal bond accused persons – under the BNSS, stringent restrictions have been placed on the release of accused persons on personal bond, especially for those charged with serious offenses, such as individuals accused of crimes punishable by life imprisonment and for accused persons involved in multiple legal proceedings. 

5. An alternative to arrest – under the BNSS, an alternative to traditional arrest has been introduced. Instead of the first resort of the police being to arrest, the police are now given the option of requesting a security bond from the individual which serves as a financial guarantee that the accused will appear before the Magistrate when required, avoiding the need for arresting the individual. 

6. Community service defined – under the BNSS, community service has been defined as a form of punishment that the court may impose on a convicted individual. The courts have the option to sentence a convict to community service for minor offences such as petty theft, public nuisance, and false defamation complaints. It is defined as “work that a court may order a convict to perform as a form of punishment that benefits the community, for which he shall not be entitled to any remuneration. It has been included as an alternative to traditional punishments, such as imprisonment. 

7. Substitution in terminology – under the BNSS, the term “mental illness” has been substituted by “unsoundness of mind” in most clauses. This change in terminology has been effected as a result of the changing and broadening of societal as well as judicial perspectives with regards to mental health and the recognition of the same within the legal system. 

8. Record-keeping procedures – record-keeping procedures have ben established for searches conducted with or without warrants under the BNSS. It is provided that all searches, whether they are being made with or without warrants, require the submission of recorded material to the Magistrate as soon as possible, along with audio-video documentation. 

9. Procedure timelines – deadlines have been established for various legal processes to enhance efficiency and ensure timely justice. For example, it is mandated that a verdict must be issued within 30 days of the conclusion of arguments. 

10. Medical examination – new provisions for medical examinations and evidence collection have been introduced under the BNSS. In some circumstances, any police officer may request a sample collection. Even if a person has not been arrested, the Magistrate has the authority to require them to turn in handwriting samples, specimens of their signatures. Further, for offenses punishable with over seven years of imprisonment, forensic investigation is required. 

11. New FIR registration procedure – under the BNSS, the procedure for registering FIRs has been updated. One major change under the BNSS is the introduction of the concept of “Zero FIR”, which allows victims to file a complaint/register an FIR in any police station regardless of territorial jurisdiction. Following the filing of a Zero FIR, the pertinent police station is required to forward it to the station that is jurisdictionally appropriate for additional investigation. Furthermore, the BNSS provides that FIRs can now be electronically filed, and that the information is to be officially recorded within three days of the complainant signing. 

12. Victim/informant rights – the BNSS places a strong emphasis on the rights of victims and informants. For example, the legislation requires the police to provide the victim with a copy of the police report and other relevant documentation following the filing of a charge sheet. Further, the State governments are directed to establish Witness Protection Schemes. 

• Key Issues

1. Allowed 15 days of police custody within initial 40 or 60 days. 

2. Does not need an investigating officer to give justification for requesting detention by the police. 

3. Allows the use of handcuffs during an arrest, which is against NHRC norms and SC judgements. 

4. The extent of required bail is restricted when there are several charges.

5. Restricts plea bargaining to sentence bargaining in India. 

6. Limiting the use of bail and the extent of plea bargaining may discourage jail decongesting. 

7. Power to seize property has been extended to include immovable as well as moveable goods. 

8. A number of elements conflict with current legislation. 

9. BNSS keeps public order-related CrPC provisions, which begs the question of whether, given their different purposes, the laws controlling trial procedure and public order maintenance should be considered equally or as independent laws. 

PROTECTING CITIZENS' RIGHTS WITH THE NEW CRIMINAL LAWS 

The new criminal laws highlight how crucial it is to protect citizens' rights, particularly those of crime victims. The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 contains provisions for victim compensation and support, ensuring that victims receive the necessary assistance and justice. In addition, the laws mandate that law enforcement utilize resources like digital case tracking and video recording of search and seizure activities, and that they be open and accountable for their actions. 

Victims’ Rights and Safety Procedures 

The goal of the new victim compensation laws is to provide victims of serious crimes with both rehabilitation and financial help. This is a significant step in recognising the impact of crime on victims and ensuring they receive the support they require to begin over. Additionally, the law provides protections for witnesses. The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita has measures for support and compensation for victims, guaranteeing that victims get the help and justice they need. 

Accountability and Transparency in Law Enforcement 

Furthermore, the rules require police enforcement to be transparent and accountable, requiring them to use tools like digital case tracking and video recording of search and seizure activities. The new legislation includes an important provision regarding the use of body cameras and videography in police operations. The aforementioned steps aim to enhance openness and accountability, hence mitigating instances of misconduct and power abuse by law enforcement personnel. Studies conducted in nations that have adopted body cameras have revealed that adoption of such body cameras have resulted in a decline in complaints made against police personnel and a rise in public confidence. 

LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE NEW CRIMINAL LAWS

To guarantee a fair and reasonable application, a number of legal and ethical issues are raised by the introduction of the new criminal legislation in India. These factors mostly include maintaining non-discriminatory policies, safeguarding human rights and privacy, and striking a balance between modernisation and tradition. 

Maintaining Tradition with Modernising

The new rules use modern legal principles and technology innovations in an attempt to reform India's criminal justice system. However, the deep-rooted traditional values and customs of Indian culture must be respected in order to maintain a balance with this development. 

Addressing the Colonial Influences 

Repealing the colonial legacy from the Indian Evidence Act, CrPC and IPC is one of the main goals of the new legislation. Developed during British control, these laws frequently represented colonial interests over the demands of Indian society. India aims to establish a legal framework that is more in line with its democratic values and cultural background by revising and modernizing these laws. 

Adapting to Contemporary Legal Standards 

The new legislation aims to address colonial influences while still being in line with modern international legal norms. This entails incorporating best practices from various legal systems and making sure that the laws can be modified in the future. To ensure improved collaboration and comprehension in transnational crime investigations, India's legislative framework has been brought into compliance with international norms through the incorporation of legislation pertaining to cybercrime and digital evidence. 

PRIVACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS ISSUES 

Digital Privacy Concerns 

The provisions of the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam 2023 ought to maintain a balance between the need for digital evidence in judicial processes and the safeguarding of individual privacy rights. This necessitates careful deliberation to avoid the improper utilization of digital evidence and to guarantee that privacy issues are adequately addressed to. The legislation includes provisions for cybersecurity and data protection safeguards, but their successful implementation will be essential.

Non-discriminatory Practices 

Ensuring the new laws are implemented on the basis of equality and without bias or discrimination is another ethical concern. This involves defending the rights of vulnerable and marginalised communities that law enforcement actions may affect

disproportionately. To enhance accountability and decrease instances of discrimination and abuse by law enforcement officials are now required to be videotaped. 

IMPLEMENTATION OF NEW INDIAN CRIMINAL LAWS

Training and Capacity Building

Law enforcement officers, judges and other stakeholders must receive training and capacity building in order for the new laws to be implemented successfully. In order to address the new legal rules and procedural modifications, the government has already started comprehensive training programs, with over 5.65 lakh officials receiving this training. Maintaining current legal requirements and staying up to date with technological changes will require ongoing education and skill development. 

Campaigns for Public Awareness 

Campaigns for public awareness are essential to ensuring that people are aware of their rights and obligations under the new legislation. The public's cooperation and faith in law enforcement agencies can be strengthened by these initiatives. The implementation of efficient communication tactics, such as community workshops, social media outreach, and educational programs, will be crucial in spreading awareness of the new legislative framework. 

ADDRESSING POTENTIAL HURDLES

Resistance to Change 

Overcoming opposition to change is a major obstacle in the implementation of the new laws. There are a number of potential sources of this opposition, such as law enforcement organisations that are accustomed to outdated techniques, legal practitioners who are wary of new practices, and the general public who are sceptical of new laws. Incentives, ongoing education and showcasing the advantages of the new system through effective case studies and pilot projects are all necessary to overcome this opposition. 

Mechanisms for Monitoring and Evaluating 

Ensuring that the new laws accomplish their intended goals requires the implementation of strong monitoring and assessment procedures. This entails establishing impartial organisations to supervise the implementation procedure, conducting frequent audits and establishing feedback mechanisms to quickly detect and address problems. Analysing the effects of the changes and making the required modifications can be aided by data-driven methods. 

ANALYSIS

India's criminal laws have prompted a more thorough examination of the challenges, repercussions and criticisms linked to these modifications. An area of concern that has received more attention is the rise in the length of time that individuals are held in police custody under the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita. Increasing the duration from 15 days to either 60 or 90 days, depending on the seriousness of the violation, raises concerns about finding a middle ground between fulfilling law enforcement needs and safeguarding civil freedoms. 

The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita presents a range of extensively specified transgressions, including those related to the safeguarding of the nation. Although the absence of the term "sedition" is worth noting, its substitution with "Acts endangering sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India" maintains vague language, which raises worries about the possibility of excessive criminalisation. The broad range of charges such as "organised crime" and "terrorist act" still exist, and although efforts have been made to explain and restrict their meanings, concerns persist regarding possible abuse and consequences for individuals. To achieve the desired efficiency, it is crucial to address challenges such as high vacancy rates, excessive judicial workload, and the necessity for extensive infrastructure development and personnel training for forensic experts. Additionally, it is important to implement audio-video recording of statements.The acceptance of electronic records as basic evidence is emphasised in Section 57 of the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam. In addition, the Act has provisions that allow oral testimony to be presented electronically, which is consistent with the nation's ongoing digital transition.The new criminal laws also seek to simplify procedures by requiring audio-video recording of searches and seizures; however, their full effect will depend on how deeply ingrained structural obstacles are removed. A comprehensive strategy that includes infrastructural development and systemic adjustments is necessary to implement the targeted improvements.executing it. Furthermore, it has been noted that the dispensation of justice in India has been delayed due to a multitude of unresolved issues in different courts. Hence, it is imperative to shift towards a contemporary legal framework. 

The BNS, which has provisions for specialist tribunals and punishments for manipulating electronic data, concentrates on financial offenses and cybercrimes. The BNSS places a strong emphasis on public safety by using specialized units for crime prevention and community policing programs. The BSA makes DNA profiling and electronic evidence admissible, bolstering forensic investigation and evidence gathering. 

In contrast, generic laws and processes are provided by the IPC, CrPC, and IEA, with no particular emphasis on contemporary offenses or forensic technology. Even though the Indian legal system is still based on these ancient rules, new criminal laws have been introduced in response to shifting social standards, advances in technology, and new types of criminal activity. 

CONCLUSION

Maintaining a balance between innovation and continuity is crucial for the criminal justice system in India. The BNS, BNSS, and BSA represent a step forward in addressing modern issues, while the IPC, CrPC, and IEA continue to be the main pillars of legal practice. In order to assess the impact and effectiveness of these new laws in achieving their declared purposes of ensuring justice, security, and safety for all citizens, more research and analysis will be needed as India's legal system matures.The need for criminal justice system reforms is evident since they are a necessary step in the direction of a society that is more responsive, just, and equal. These changes, which address systemic shortcomings, encourage openness, and adopt evidence-based procedures, protect individual rights while also advancing the more general objective of developing a system that respects the values of justice and rehabilitation. Building a society that respects each person's dignity and works towards a more ideal, inclusive, and compassionate legal system requires us to undertake deliberate reforms as we navigate the complicated terrain of justice. This is not simply a moral requirement, but also a practical necessity. 

REFERENCES

1. Piyush,’New Criminal Laws Bills in India, Significance and criticism’, available at https://www.studyq.com, visited on 4th August, 2024 at 15:28. 

2. Abhinandan,’New Indian Criminal Laws, Key Highlights, Impact’ available at https://arthbridge.com, visited on 4th August, 2024 at 15:53. 

3. Dr. Rahul Tripathi, ‘Evolution of Criminal Justice System in Ancient India’,International Journal of multidisciplinary Research and Development,ISSN:2349-4182,Vol.5, Issue 1, p.No.153-157, available at https://www.vidhikavya.com, visited on 5th August, 2024 at 16:10

4. New Criminal Laws in India, ‘India’s Transformative New Criminal Laws: A New   Era’, available at https://www.lexisnexis.in, visited on 5th August, 2024 at 16:40.

5. Rana Vikrant, Nihit Nagpa, ‘Legal shape-shifting or reforming criminal justice system?:A comparative analysis of the old and new penal laws 3rd Jan 2024, available at https://www.barandbench.com,visited on 5th August, 2024 at 20:30. 

6. ‘New Criminal laws come into Force’, available at https://www.drishtiaas.com, visited on 6th August, 2024 at 22:03. 

7. 'New Criminal laws into Effect: IPC, CrPC, Indian Evidence Act will be Replaced From Today’, Ministry of Law and Justice, available at https://ddnews.govt.in, visited on 6th August, 2024 at 11.45.

INTRODUCTION 

In the face of an escalating global economy, the world is grappling with the intensifying consumption and depletion of natural resources. This rapid exploitation, particularly of non-renewable resources, is not only threatening worldwide energy stability and efficiency but also contributing to significant environmental pollution. The need for sustainable development has never been more imperative.

India, post the Paris Agreement, has emerged as a key player in the renewable energy sector. As the world’s 4th largest electricity consumer and 3rd largest renewable energy producer, it has made significant strides in this field having 40% of its energy capacity (160 GW of 400 GW) from renewable sources in 2022. The Renewable Energy Country Attractiveness Index (RECAI) ranked India 3rd, trailing only behind the US and China.

In FY 2023-24, India plans to issue 50 GW tenders for wind, solar, and hybrid projects, aligning with its commitment to achieving 500 GW renewable energy capacity by 2030. The installed renewable energy capacity has seen a steady increase, from 94.4 GW in 2021 to 119.1 GW in 2023.

Under the Paris Agreement’s Intended Nationally Determined Contributions targets in 2016, India committed to generating 50% of its total electricity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030. This commitment was reiterated by India’s Central Electricity Authority in 2018. Additionally, India aims to produce 175 GW by 2022 and 500 GW by 2030 from renewable energy.

The ‘Make in India’ initiative, aimed at boosting investments and employment in India’s manufacturing sector, has significantly impacted the renewable energy sector. India, a pioneer in renewable energy development, established the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) and initiated the International Solar Alliance (ISA). The Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) oversees the country’s solar industry development.

In 2009, the Indian Government launched the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission, also known as ‘Solar India’, with an initial target of 20 GW grid capacity by 2022, later increased to 100 GW. In 2015, the ISA was launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi and French President Francois Hollande, aiming to mobilize $1 trillion of investment by 2030. The Indian Oil Corporation plans to invest ₹25,000 crore in renewable energy projects as of August 2019.

Solar power, primarily used for water pumping and off-grid lighting in areas without an electrical grid, has seen significant growth in India. The Thar Desert is earmarked for solar power projects, potentially generating 700 to 2,100 gigawatts. Solar power in India, priced around ₹4.34 per kWh, is growing at a rate of 113% year-on-year and is approximately 18% cheaper than electricity from coal-fired plants.

RENEWABLE ENERGY SECTOR IN INDIA

The renewable energy sector in India is diverse and dynamic:

1. Solar Power: India, a founder member of the International Solar Alliance (ISA), has proposed global initiatives like “One Sun One World One Grid” and “World Solar Bank”. Foreign investments in Indian solar projects reached nearly $20.7 billion from 2010-19. In FY 2023-24, India plans to issue 40 GW tenders for solar and hybrid projects. A network of 121 solar radiation resource assessment (SRRA) stations across India provides data for the Indian solar-radiation atlas.

2. Nuclear Power: As of November 2020, India had 10 nuclear reactors under construction and 23 operational ones, contributing to 3.11% of total power generation.

3. Biomass Electricity: India’s tropical climate and agricultural potential provide ample biomass resources. The potential for biomass energy in India includes 16,000 MW from biomass energy and an additional 3,500 MW from bagasse cogeneration. Nuclear power is the fifth-largest source of electricity in India after coal, hydroelectricity, solar, wind and gas power.

4. Biogas: In 2018, India aimed to produce 15 million tons of biogas/bio-CNG by installing 5,000 commercial biogas plants. The by-products from these plants can be used to reduce coal consumption.

5. Waste to Energy: India generates significant amounts of municipal solid waste (MSW) and sewage annually. The country has a long history with anaerobic digestion and biogas technologies, with wastewater treatment plants producing renewable energy from sewage gas. There is still significant untapped potential in this sector.

6. Wind Power in India: India’s wind power sector, which began developing in the 1990s, has seen significant growth in recent years, thanks to domestic policy support. Despite being a relative newcomer compared to countries like Denmark or the US, India now ranks fourth globally in installed wind power capacity.

As of 30 June 2018, India’s installed wind power capacity was 34,293 MW, distributed mainly across Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. Wind power constitutes 10% of India’s total installed power capacity. The country aims to generate 60,000 MW of electricity from wind power by 2022.

Wind power installations use only 2% of the wind farm area, leaving the rest for agriculture and plantations. In May 2018, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy announced a new wind-solar hybrid policy, allowing both wind farms and solar panels to be housed on the same land.

ROLE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY IN ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

Sustainable development is a global priority in the 21st century, with the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) serving as a comprehensive framework to address pressing global challenges. One key driver of sustainable development is the transition to renewable energy sources, which can transform economies, mitigate climate change, and improve the quality of life for billions of people around the world.

Access to Clean and Affordable Energy (SDG 7)

SDG 7 aims to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all. Renewable energy technologies, such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power, can bring clean and affordable energy to remote and underserved communities. Solar panels can be installed in rural areas to power homes, schools, and healthcare facilities, improving the quality of life for those who have been left behind by traditional grid expansion efforts.

Climate Action (SDG 13)

SDG 13 aims to combat climate change and its impacts. Transitioning to renewable energy sources is essential in mitigating the adverse effects of climate change and achieving the targets set by SDG 13. Renewable energy technologies produce little to no greenhouse gas emissions during operation, making them a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels. As countries shift away from coal, oil, and natural gas and invest in renewables, they contribute to a global effort to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, as outlined in the Paris Agreement.

Economic Growth and Decent Work (SDG 8)

SDG 8 emphasizes the promotion of sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all. The renewable energy sector has become a significant driver of economic growth and job creation in many regions. As investments in renewable energy projects increase, they create employment opportunities in manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and research and development. Countries that invest in renewable energy technologies can experience a "green jobs" boom, as workers are needed to manufacture solar panels, construct wind farms, and maintain renewable energy infrastructure.

Affordable and Clean Energy (SDG 7)

SDG 7 emphasizes affordable energy. Renewable energy sources offer a unique advantage in this regard. Once installed, renewable energy systems can produce electricity for decades with minimal maintenance, reducing long-term energy expenses for individuals, businesses, and governments. Decentralization of energy production through renewable sources can enhance energy security, making communities and nations less vulnerable to disruptions in energy supply and price volatility associated with fossil fuels.

Sustainable Cities and Communities (SDG 11)

SDG 11 aims to make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable. Renewable energy plays a crucial role in making cities more sustainable by reducing air pollution, lowering carbon emissions, and improving the overall quality of life for urban residents. Renewable energy technologies, such as rooftop solar panels, can be integrated into urban landscapes, generating clean energy at the point of consumption and reducing the strain on centralized power grids. Electric vehicles, which can be charged using renewable energy sources, offer a sustainable transportation solution for urban areas, reducing air pollution and promoting cleaner, more liveable cities.

Life Below Water and Life on Land (SDGs 14 and 15)

SDGs 14 and 15 aim to protect and sustainably manage life below water and life on land, respectively. The transition to renewable energy sources is critical in achieving these goals. Renewable energy projects have a lower ecological footprint than fossil fuels. For example, offshore wind farms can provide clean energy without disturbing marine life and habitats to the same extent as offshore drilling for oil ¹. Similarly, solar power projects can be built on previously developed land, reducing the need for land conversion and preserving natural landscapes.

Partnerships for the Goals (SDG 17)

SDG 17 emphasizes the importance of partnerships to achieve the other 16 goals. Public-private partnerships can drive investment in renewable energy projects, improve energy infrastructure, and facilitate technology transfer to developing countries. International cooperation is crucial for advancing renewable energy adoption, as many renewable technologies require significant research and development efforts.

Investments

India's solar programme has set up a US$350 million fund and the Yes Bank will loan US$5 billion to finance solar projects. India has the world's first and only 100% solar-powered airport, located at Cochin, Kerala, and a wholly 100% solar-powered railway station in Guwahati, Assam. India's first and the largest floating solar power plant was constructed at Banasura Sagar reservoir in Wayanad, Kerala. The Indian Solar Loan Programme has financed over 16,000 solar home systems through 2,000 bank branches, particularly in rural areas of South India where the electricity grid does not yet extend.

INDIA’S ACHIEVEMENTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY TARGETS

India has set a target of producing 175 GW by 2022 and 500 GW by 2030 from renewable energy. As of September 2020, 89.22 GW solar energy is already operational, projects of 48.21 GW are at various stages of implementation and projects of 25.64 GW capacity are under various stages of bidding. In 2020, 3 of the world's top 5 largest solar parks were in India including world's largest 2255 MW Bhadla Solar Park in Rajasthan and world's second-largest solar park of 2000 MW Pavagada Solar Park Tumkur in Karnataka and 1000 MW Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh. Solar, wind and run-of-the-river hydroelectricity are environment-friendly cheaper power sources they are used as “must-run” sources in India to cater for the base load, and the polluting and foreign-import dependent coal-fired power is increasingly being moved from the “must-run base load” power generation to the load following power generation (mid-priced and mid-merit on-demand need-based intermittently-produced electricity) to meet the peaking demand only. Solar and wind power with 4-hour battery storage systems, as a source of dispatchable generation compared with new coal and new gas plants, is already cost-competitive in India without subsidy.

India is one of the Frontrunner in the Global Renewable Energy

India has established itself as a market leader in the global renewable energy market. According to the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) most recent report, India’s installed renewable energy capacity will reach 174 GW by 2023, accounting for approximately 37% of the country’s total energy supply. The government has taken the lead in encouraging the use of renewable energy sources. Launched in 2010, the flagship National Solar Mission aimed to install 100 GW of solar power by 2022, which was later increased to 450 GW by 2030. The Centre has also launched a wind energy program with the goal of reaching 60 GW of capacity by 2022. The renewable energy sector in India has also attracted significant foreign investment, with companies from all over the world investing in solar and wind power projects

The cost of solar power in India has dropped by 84% since 2010, making it cheaper than coal-powered power in most parts of the country. Similarly, the cost of wind power has dropped by 49% in the last decade, making it one of India’s most cost-effective energy sources. India is a pioneer in floating solar technology, with Kerala housing the world’s largest floating solar power plant. The world’s largest solar park, the Pavagada Solar Park in Karnataka, has a capacity of 2 GW and is located in India. Despite these achievements, India’s renewable energy sector continues to face challenges due to a lack of grid infrastructure and limited storage capacity, which has led to reduced renewable energy output.

The government has launched initiatives to improve grid infrastructure and storage capacity, such as the Green Energy Corridor project and the National Energy Storage Mission. India’s success in renewable energy has benefited the environment, reduced greenhouse gas emissions and improved air quality. The country has received international recognition for its leadership in the renewable energy market, inspiring other countries to follow suit. With 174 GW of installed renewable energy capacity and growing, India has exceeded its targets and is on track to achieve even greater success in the coming years.

FUTURE VISION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY IN INDIA

India’s renewable energy sector, particularly solar and wind energy, has seen significant growth, reflecting the country’s commitment to a sustainable future.

1. Solar Power: Over the past decade, India’s solar energy sector has surged, driven by initiatives like Atma Nirbhar Bharat. The establishment of more solar parks and reduced dependency on imported materials for solar PV manufacturing have boosted India’s indigenous solar capacity. The government supports the Approved List of Models and Manufacturers of Solar Photovoltaic Modules (ALMM) to ensure quality. The recent COP 27 targets aim for a 500 GW capacity by 2030, with solar energy contributing more than half (280-300 GW). The demand for residential rooftop installations has also increased, reaching 1000 MW.

2. Investment Opportunities: The positive growth in the solar sector presents a compelling investment opportunity. Sustvest offers a platform for investments starting from 5000 up to 25 lakhs, promising a stable annual yield of 10-15%.

3. Wind Power: India’s wind sector, aiming to fulfill 28% of its energy demand by 2030, is set for expansion. In Q1 2023, the installed wind capacity reached 700 MW. While offshore wind projects may not be prioritized due to higher costs, onshore wind installations have shown remarkable progress.

4. Energy Security: Relying on fossil fuels due to a lack of energy security not only escalates greenhouse gas emissions but also impedes the advancement and adoption of new technologies and innovative solutions in the energy sector, leading to potential disruptions.

5. Renewable Energy Prospects: India’s renewable sector, attracting $1.5 billion in foreign direct investment in 2022, is a favored destination for foreign investors. The sector has also generated substantial employment, employing over 164,000 people in 2022 alone. As India strives towards its 2030 energy goals, the renewable energy sector is expected to create over one million job opportunities. Additionally, energy independence offers two advantages: savings on import bills and minimal impact from price fluctuations in conventional energy sources.

REFRENCES

1.Koundal, Aarushi, India’s renewable power capacity is the fourth largest in the world, says PM Modi, 26th November , 2020, accessed, 9 January 2024 at 3.30 p.m.

2.Renewable Energy Country Attractiveness Index (RECAI), 2019, accessed, 8 January 2024 at 2.30 p.m.

3.PM Modi vows to more than double India’s non-fossil fuel target to 450GW, The Times of India, 23 September 2019,https://m.timesofindia.com/india/. accessed 9 January at 1.05 p.m.

4. Dr.Kaushik Sridhar, The role of renewable energy in achieving sustainable development goals, September 8, 2023 , https://www.wionews..accessed on 10 January 2024 at 10 a.m.

5.Year End Review of Ministry of Power (Up to Novemver 2023) PIB, https://pub.gov.in>Press RElease) 2 January 2024, accessed 10 January 3.56 p.m.

6.Emmanual, William. “Energy Alternatives India” EAI,7 March 2012, accessed 11 January 2024 at 12.50 p.m.

7.Jonathan Ananda, Solar Radiation Measuring Network, Atlas Out in the Open,4 June 2015,, The New India Express, accessed 11 January 2024.

8.”Compressed biogas to beat petrol and diesel with 30% higher mileage”, https://www.economictimes.inddiatimes.com.November 18 2018, accessed 11 January 2024 at 14.51 p.m.

9.Bhatia. Hardik, “What is the future of Renewable Energy? Exploring Trends,Growth and India's Impressive Strides, June 23 2023, https://blog.sustvest..accessed 11 January, 2024 at 3.19 p.m.