Extra Resources

Annotated Bibliography: Rock Flat Creek Burials

Australian Geographic (2019). Custodians of the Land. Australian Geographic Pty Ltd.

A beautiful book that is accessible for Year 7 students. It provides an overview of how Indigenous knowledge and practices are linked to sustainable use of resources and how their ways of living were influenced by their environment. There is a good 2-page spread on the Ngarigo Nation in the Alpine Area. There is not a large amount of detail but the images are instructive.

Bird, C. and Beeck, C. (1980). Bone Points and Spatulae: Salvage Ethnography in Southwest Australia. Archaeology & Physical Anthropology in Oceania, 15: 3, 168-171. http://www.jstor.com/stable/40386388

Although now dated, this is a detailed account of bone points in Southwest Australia including their manufacture and use. There is some debate around the function of the bone points found at Rock Flat Creek. This article is instructive for learning more about how the Rock Flat Creek bone points may have been used. Of course, the bulk of the information comes from data collected in WA, not NSW, but comparisons can nevertheless be drawn.

Blyton, G. (2009). Reflections, Memories, and Sources: Healthier Times?: Revisiting Indigenous Australian health history. Health and History, 11: 2, 116-135. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20700569

Blyton challenges the perception that pre-colonial Indigenous Australians were primitive hunters and gatherers who lived in a nomadic 'Stone Age' culture. He suggests that longevity favoured Indigenous Australians in comparison to many poorer sectors of the European population living in slum habitats. He also contests notions that Indigenous Australians were more violent than supposedly 'civilised' nations. I found this useful for understanding health, medicine, perceptions of the elderly and life expectancy. As the woman found at RFC was likely 50+ years old, this is helpful information.

Cohen, S. (1993). Burial site bones baffle the boffins. Geo Australia, 15: 1, 52-61.

This is the first publication of the finds and images of the grave goods. Stuart Cohen worked for the NPWS for a long time. He has since worked closely with Aboriginal communities to create videos about issues of significant interest to the public. This is a good overview of the site and contains high definition images of the grave goods. It is important to note that no complete archaeological report has yet been produced of the site, so we rely on Cohen and Feary’s articles.

David, B. et.al. (2021). 50 years and worlds apart: Rethinking the Holocene occupation of Cloggs Cave (East Gippsland, SE Australia) five decades after its initial archaeological excavation and in light of GunaiKurnai world views. Australian Archaeology, 87:1, 1-20. DOI: 10.1080/03122417.2020.1859963

“Cloggs Cave is now understood to have been actively used for special, magical purposes. Configured by local GunaiKurnai cosmology, cave landscapes (including Cloggs Cave’s) were populated not only by food species animals, but also by ‘supernatural’ Beings and forces whose presence helped inform occupational patterns.”

Feary, S. (1996). An Aboriginal burial with grave goods near Cooma, New South Wales. Australian Archaeology, 43, 40-42. https://doi.org/10.1080/03122417.1996.11681576

This article provides an important overview of the excavations and finds. It is written by Sue Feary, original excavator at the site who worked for NPWS at the time, now a retired archaeologist. It concludes that the existence of grave goods is evidence of a ritual burial and the individuals likely enjoyed special status within the community, possibly because of their magic powers. It is unclear whether the kangaroo tooth necklace (requiring the slaughter of at least 126 individuals) was constructed in a single event or was made over many generations.

Macintosh, N. et. Al. (1970). Lake Nitchie Skeleton—Unique Aboriginal Burial. Archaeology & Physical Anthropology in Oceania, 5: 2, 85-101. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40386111

Considering the rarity of the kangaroo tooth necklace find at Rock Flat Creek, it is important to study the only other two historical examples of teeth necklaces found in Australia. This article supports the hypothesis that the (Tasmanian Devil) necklace was passed down through generations. Under magnification, the authors explain that many of the teeth have been gouged out using different techniques. They suggest that if it was just one person making the necklace, they would likely use the same method each time. So, this possibly represents a number of people over a long stretch of time contributing to the piece.

Macintosh, N. (1971). Analysis of an aboriginal skeleton and a pierced tooth necklace from Lake Nitchie, Australia. Anthropologie, 9: 1, 49-62.

This article notes that the skeleton buried with the necklace that was discovered was dated to 6820+/- 200. The Tasmanian Devil population started dwindling from 7000 years ago. The author suggests that potentially the hunting of the Tasmanian Devil for their teeth could have led to their extinction on mainland Australia. The necklace could also be much older than the skeleton and could have been an important heirloom that was passed down for many generations.

NSW Department of Primary Industries. (2007). Mining by Aborigines – Australia's first miners. www.pdi.nsw.gov.au.

This is a sound summary of the mining and use of ochre. It discusses the trade of ochre amongst specific Aboriginal groups and is useful for thinking about the reasons why ochre may have been discovered in the RFC burials. If interested in mining closer to home, take a look at Stuart Cohen’s ‘The Quarry’ https://vimeo.com/184172289 “The discovery of a very significant ax quarry on a farm called 'Millpost' near Bungendore in southern NSW leads to an important collaboration between the landholders and the local Aboriginal communities”.

Pardoe, C. (1995). Riverine, biological and cultural evolution in southeastern Australia. Antiquity, 69, 696-713. DOI: 10.1017/S0003598X00082284

A thoroughly researched paper that posits that 7000 years ago, when the River Murray carved its modern course, we see great changes in everything from land use, funerary customs, technology, even a decrease in the average size of both men and women. Cohen shows the impact of climactic changes on the people of the early Holocene – necessary context for understanding RFC individuals.

Pardoe, C. (2013). Report on the study in Jabiru of the skeletons excavated from the Madjedbebe rock shelter. Unpublished report to Gundjeihmi Aboriginal Corporation.

There are questions over whether the Rock Flat Creek individuals were buried at a residential site and there is significant debate here. Pardoe demonstrates that the individual buried at Madjedbebe was buried in a domestic context. Similarities in the burial possibly lend weight to the theory that RFC was a residential area.

Pardoe, C. (2015). Examination of skeletal remains from Kingborn Road, Parafield Gardens, South Australia. Unpublished report to Kaurna Heritage Board [KHB].

The author reports on the remains of 4 children, 4 mid adults and 6 older adults. Tooth wear was of two distinct kinds, indicating different daily tasks such as chewing fibre for string. This is similar to the tooth wear on the woman found at RFC. There is evidence of a mortuary custom in the animal bones retrieved. Several stone tools were recovered. These are typical of these residential areas, where cutting and pounding fibres was probably a major component of the day-to-day work. He writes “Numerous burials are common in residences, in Australia and throughout the world. Density of burial typically follows density of occupation, and this region, in the City of Salisbury, was one of the densest population centres of the Adelaide Plain in traditional times.”

Queensland Museum. (2011). Stone Artefacts. The State of Queensland. www.qm.qld.gov.au

A good introduction to the various stone tools and methods of productions of stone tools across Australia. Provides necessary language for discussing stone tools (cores, points, flakes, etc.). Helpful for providing background for the stone tools found at the Rock Flat creek site.

Richards, T. (2012). A post-contact Aboriginal mortuary tree from southwestern Victoria, Australia. Journal of Field Archaeology, 37: 1, 62-72.

This is an important example to understand the varied nature of funerary practices in south-eastern Australia. When discussing burial practices with Ngarigo Elder Aunty Therese May, she confirmed that this was once a common practice for Ngarigo people also.

Spate, A. (1997). Karsting around for Bones: Aborigines and Karst Caves in Southeastern Australia. Australian Archaeology, 45, 35-44. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40287337

Spate presents helpful data for understanding how Aboriginal Australians of Southeastern Australia used caves. It is important information for understanding living spaces, funerary practices and artwork. It also works systematically through a vast number of karst caves in the region.

Suggit, D. (2008). A Clever People: Indigenous healing traditions and Australian mental health futures. Short Thesis, ANU.

This thesis explores the role of ‘Clever People’ in Indigenous Australian throughout history and in to present times. It considers the importance of traditional methods of healing and Indigenous conceptions of the body and the spirit. This is useful food for thought for those wanting to explore the possibility of the older woman found at Rock Flat Creek potentially being a ‘Clever Woman’.