Reading

• Davis, Chap. 1

• Beatley, et al., Chap. 1 (pp. 1-12); Chap. 2 (pp. 17-29 and 46-51); Chap. 3 (pp. 53-90)

Tide Chart Information Due

Assignment #1 - HOME Documentary Movie

Goals:

• Expand awareness of the complexities of global issues

• Foster analytical thinking

• Enhance technical knowledge about earth science

• Emphasize clear writing skills

Directions:

• Watch the movie, HOME, and then identify one major global problems covered in the movie that relates to energy supply or energy management.

• Provide at least one solution for that problem.

• Link to movie: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jqxENMKaeCU

• Prepare your commentary for submission on Blackboard.

• This is an individual assignment and your paper should be uniquely different from any other student's paper.

• Prepare an initial draft of paper and edit for spelling, punctuation, sentence structure, style and content

• Submit Final Draft (limit to one page, use word processor, post on Blackboard website under "Assignments" - Assignment 1).

Due Date: Due dates are posted on Blackboard.

Assignment #2 - Systems Theory Lecture and Commentary

Goals:

• Review tenets of "systems theory"

• Foster analytical thinking

• Link theoretical constructs and practical applications

• Understand complexity of major environmental disasters

Directions:

• Find Reserve Reading #1 (Blackboard Content Folder)

• Watch the video lecture on Systems Theory. The link is listed below: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W8SoMztCXzo

• After watching the lecture, choose an important or well publicized ecological disaster such as the Fukushima, Japan nuclear reactor meltdown following a large earthquake and tsunami, or the the Chernobyl, Ukraine explosion and fire disaster in 1986, or the BP Oil Leak in the Gulf of Mexico.

• Then prepare a commentary showing how your chosen case study could be analyzed using systems theory...use specific terminology from the lecture.

• Bring your comments to class for a structured discussion (date to be announced)

• You will submit your rough comments at the end of class for participation credit (about 10 students will be called on randomly to share their comments orally).

Due Date: Due date posted on Blackboard.

Lecture Notes

• Introduction to Coastal Oceanography

Coastal Use Patterns

• The Edge of the Sea Is a Strange and Wonderful Place

• Rachel Carson

Realities of Coastal Living

• Unique beauty of seacoasts

• High property values

• A water view is the single best multiplier for property values

• Limited quantity of land available

• Supply and demand dynamics

• Shoreline rental properties are profitable

Coastlines Are Crowded

• High population density near coastlines

• One half of Americans live within 50 mi of a coast

• 110 million people (1999); expected to rise to 127 million by 2007

• Two-thirds of the world's population lives near a coast

• Activities of residents and visitors impact the coastal areas

Distribution of Coastal Populations

Human Impacts on Coasts

• Activities of residents and visitors impact the coastal areas

• Oversized hotels located near the water

• Overcrowded beaches (blanket to blanket)

• Motor-homes/trailer parks near beaches

• Gas stations/power plants/parking lots near wetlands

• Recreation facilities are abundant (marinas, ferries, etc.)

Regional Trends

Northeast

• Large retirement and resort areas grow faster

• 30 % growth expected (from 1960 to 2010)

• Severe degradation in some areas already

Pacific Region

• Increase of 6 million people is expected

• Alaska growth rate expected to be 40%

• Los Angeles, Orange and San Diego counties will increase the most

Great Lakes Region

• Regional percentage expected to drop

• Shores of Lake Michigan and Superior expected to grow fastest

• Porter County, IN

Gulf of Mexico Region

• Houston, New Orleans, Tampa, and St. Petersburg have highest density

• Alabama expected to grow fastest ("Florida beaches at half the price")

Southeast Region

• Concentration in Miami, Savannah, Jacksonville, and Charlestown

• Highest regional increase expected

Other Coastline Values

• Habitat for wildlife

• Natural filter for impurities

• Safety barrier and wind buffer during storm events

• Food source (fish and shellfish)

• Recreation area

• Aesthetics and spiritual renewal

Stakeholders in Policy Making

• Residents and visitors

• Fishing and food industry (employment, restaurants, markets, etc.)

• Transportation (boating, ferries, shipping)

• Elected/appointed government officials

• Community & environmental planners

Coastal Terminology

• Coasts (intersection of water, air, land)

• Coastal zone (a transitional area where two ecological communities meet)

• Confluence of terrestrial habitats and marine habitats

• Estuarine ecosystems (those associated with the coastal zone)

• Salt marshes, lagoons, rock pools, beaches

Legislation Affecting Coasts

• Coastal Zone Management Act (federal law)

• Defines coastal areas to encompass the state's coastal waters and shorelines

• Includes "islands, transitional and intertidal areas, salt marshes, wetlands, and beaches"

• Also defines the landward regions associated with the coasts

• Includes connecting waters, harbors, marshes of the Great Lakes (containing some seawater)

• CZM Programs managed by NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)

Other Legislation

• Submerged Lands Act (1953)

• Federal law allowing coastal states in the U.S. to extend its boundaries to 3 miles from its coasts

• Coastal zone in the Great Lakes extends to the "international boundary between the U.S. and Canada"

• Definitions apply to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic Oceans, Gulf of Mexico, Long Island Sound,

• Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, Guam, Mariana Islands, Pacific Islands, and American Samoa

• State Coastal Management programs

• Example: California law expands the definition of a coast ("generally 1,000 yards from the mean high tide line of the sea")

• Inward to the first ridge, or 1000 yards from the mean high tide line

• Excludes San Francisco Bay (managed under a separate agency � San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission)

Coastal Problems/Challenges

• Coastal hazards (storms, erosion, flooding)

• Coastal pollution (point source and non-point source pollutants, marine debris)

• Ocean dumping (dredged material, sludge, garbage, military wastes, ocean incinerated waste)

• Offshore oil development/mining

• Disappearance of open space

• Social equity problems

• Loss of agricultural lands

• Loss of healthy wetlands

• Poorly designed drainage systems

• Need for better coastal planning

• Develop alternatives to "site-by-site" decisions

• Involve more stakeholders in planning

• Loss of small town "character"

Coastal Agricultural Land

• Threats to fruit and vegetable production

• Estimate that two-thirds of nation's fruit, one-half of vegetables, and one-fourth of dairy products are produced in coastal areas

• Most common cause - urban sprawl (orchards being replaced by factories, homes, schools)

Loss of Wildlife Habitat

• Loss of specific habitats (salt marsh, estuaries, grasslands, etc.)

• Causes include timber harvesting, grassland conversion, inland waterway conversion, urbanization

• Example: Developer proposed to build 4,884 homes in the Bolsa Chico Wetlands (Calif.)

• Overall loss of respect for coastal habitats

Coastal Interconnectedness

• Linkages between physical parameters, biological organisms, and business development in coastal regions

• Features that make coastal areas unique and beautiful may also

• confer vulnerability in the face of human habitation

• and business development

• Example: Glaciers modify landforms, thus determining its future land use (see handout)

Glacial Activity & Coastlines

• Past Geological Activity

• Human

• Pathways

• Community Implications

• Land Use Tools for Prevention

Summary

• People love coasts

• People live in the coastal zone

• Coastal populations cause a number of impacts, including habitat loss,

• lifestyle changes for locals, and lost agricultural productivity

Hurricanes and Coastal Erosion

• Systems Theory and Coastal Resilience

Reading

• Beatley, et al., Chap. 2 (pp. 46-52)

• Bertness, Chap. 2

Assignments

• Handouts - GIS Techniques

• HOME Movie Comments Due

Lecture Notes

The Edge of the Sea Is a Strange and Wonderful Place

Rachel Carson

Diversity of Coastal Geomorphology - History of Coastal Research

• Types of Coastal Formations

• Zones of transition between the ocean and land, where waves, currents, and tides act to mold the landforms, which in turn influence the movement of the water

• Width of coasts

• Less than 1 km on cliffed coasts or more than 100 km in large estuaries (Delaware Bay)

• Pocket beaches on the Pacific Coast – long and wide beaches on East Coast and Gulf Coast

• History of Coastal Research

• Scientists have only recently undertaken comprehensive investigations of the coast

• First systematic studies of coasts were conducted by geomorphologists in the early 20th Century

• How coasts evolved

• Processes by which coasts are changed and formed

• Engineers constructed harbors, docks, and bridges; stabilize and protect the open coasts

• Most often to prevent, or at least slow erosion

• Examples: Holland and Germany protect and reclaim shorelines by building dikes

• Before WW II, the focus was to understand and control coasts

• During the war, interest in coastal geomorphology and coastal processes was emphasized

• Waves, tides, currents, and hydrological patterns along coasts

• Most of the coasts throughout the world were mapped in detail

• After WW II, emphasis was shifted to engineering and global study of river deltas (Mississippi);

• Research broadened to include beaches, inlets, and deltas of the of the world’s coasts, all potential settings for military activity

• Modern Era of Coastal Research: 1960’s and 1970’s

• Research was conducted primarily by university researchers who studied open coastal environments

• Broadened and expanded coastal research centers

• More recent trends – last 30 years

• Coastal protection programs have expanded worldwide

• New agencies and management plans for addressing coastal development and wetlands degradation

• East/West Coasts of the U.S.

• East Coast

• Wide coastal zones stretch to the sea, marked by wide beaches and high dunes, deltas, and barrier islands

• Trailing coast

• Deposition of sediment is dominant

• West Coast

• Bedrock headlands interrupted by pocket beaches

• Erosion of sediment is dominant

• Process of erosion and deposition create landforms of great variety

• East Coast Examples

• More East Coast Examples

• Pacific Coast Examples

• Coastal Processes

• Coastal processes may work in a short time (days) or long time (years)

• Examples:

• Winter storms and swift tidal currents cause short term changes

• Geological development can be observed in only a few years

• Overall development of the coastal areas took as long as 180 million years to develop--period since the breakup of the continents

• Examples of Patterns

• Days/Years: action of waves, currents, and tides

• Thousands of Years: gradual sea level changes

• Global climate changes with temperatures falling for 1000’s of years, then rising for 1000’s of years

• Sea levels now rising about 1-2 mm per year

• Result in long and slow, but steady, change

• Millions of years: mountain formation and erosion

• Effects of Short Term and Long Term Processes

• The combination of short-term and long-term processes produces the deltas, estuaries and barrier islands (deposition activity) and the rocky coastlines (erosion activity)

Diversity of Coastal Habitats

Tools to Study Coastal Processes -

• GIS Techniques -

• Field Sampling Techniques -

Reading

• Davis, Chap. 2

• Beatley, et al., Chap. 2 (pp. 13-16)

• Bertness, Chap. 1

Assignments

• Systems Analysis Comments Due

Lecture Notes

• • Sources of Energy to Power Society - Fossil Fuels, Nuclear Reactors, Renewables (fuel cycles, energy flows, cost/benefit analysis)

  • Electric Utility Industry (generation, transmission, utilization patterns)

  • Energy Flow Patterns in the U.S. (primary fuels, secondary fuels, end users)

  • Nuclear Issues (technology, safety, accidents, economic complexities)

  • Business and Energy Technology (economic implications - resource base, waste management, pollution avoidance)

  • Energy Politics & Decision Making (governmental, legal and political linkages)

  • Challenges of Pollution (types of pollution, waste management, pollution prevention/avoidance)

  • Additional Pollution Problems & Conventional Energy

  • Student Presentations - Past Semesters (usage patterns & fuel cycles)--see Blackboard "Content" folder for Spring 2019 presentations

What are some of the key terms we use to describe conventional energy technology?

• 
  

• Coal

• Petroleum

• Natural Gas

• Tar Sands

• Shale Oil (Kerogen)

• Nuclear Fission

• Transmission Efficiency

• Energy Use Sectors

• Fuel Cycle Analysis

• Retorting

• Bituminous

• Anthracite

• Surface Mining

• Deep Mining

• Drilling Platform

• Petrochemicals (feedstocks)

• Nimbyism

• U-235

• Half-life

• Fuel Rods

• Control Rods

• LMFBRs

• Moderator

• Light Water Reactor

• Graphite Cooled Reactors

• Chernobyl

• Three Mile Island

• SURFs

• Transuranic Wastes

• High Level Radioactive Wastes

• Yucca Mountain

• Decommissioning

• LOCA

• Core Meltdown

• Somatic vs. Genetic Damage

• Chronic vs. Acute Exposure

• Radon-222

• Nuclear Fusion

• Tokamak

Reading

• Davis, Chap. 3

• Beatley, et al., Chap. 2 (pp. 30-44)

Lecture Notes

How Coasts are Formed - Processes of Change

Changing Sea Levels

Climate Change and Sea Level

Effects of Climate Change on Coastal Ecology

Reading

• Beatley, et al., Chap. 2 (pp. 46-52)

• Bertness, Chap. 2,3,4

Assignments

• Problem 1 Due

Lecture Notes

• Coastal Ecology - Trophic Dynamics

Coastal Food Webs

“The Edge of the Sea Is a Strange and Wonderful Place.”

Rachel Carson

Overview of Coastal Ecology

Coastal Ecosystems

• Ecosystem – a stable, interactive system, comprised of a biotic (living) community

• dependent upon the abiotic (non-living) environment

• Examples of coastal ecosystems:

• Estuaries, salt marshes & mangrove swamps

Differences in Coasts

• Coastal flood plains (width and extent of coverage)

• Presence or absence of rock formations (rock pools, cliffs, bluffs, etc.)

• Dynamics of estuaries (tidal flux, flooding characteristics, biotic diversity is high in shallow sediments)

Land Formations in the United States

(Illustration)

Ocean Divisions

• Pelagic Division (water column of the ocean)

• Benthic Division (ocean bottom and sediments)

• Ocean bottom and sediments

• Additional zones (three criteria)

• Distance from the land

• Light availability

• Depth

Ocean Divisions and Zones

(Illustration)

Types of Coastal Ecosystems

• Estuaries (basins with mixed salinity)

• Salt Marshes (shallow water area, grasses e.g., Spartina, soft benthos, snails, birds, clams, etc.)

• Mangrove Swamps (flooded woodlands)

• Rocky Shores (rock outcroppings, exposed rock pools)

• Sandy Beaches (flatlands, lower diversity)

• Intertidal Zone (area between low & high tide; extremes of temperature, moisture and salinity)

• Coral Reefs (Complex, highly diverse, tropical)

• Kelp Forests (Found in deeper water, brown algae)

Pathways & Flows

• Linkages between abiotic and biotic components of coastal ecosystems

• Nutrients for plants and algae

• Nitrates (NO₃)

• Phosphates (PO₄)

• Sulfates (SO₄)

• Trophic interactions (food chains)

• Energy Flow

• Photosynthesis (plant & algal cells)

• 6C0₂ + 6H₂0 = C₆H₁₂O₆ + 60₂

• Respiration (all living organisms)

• C₆H₁₂O₆ + 0₂ = 6C0₂ + 6H₂0

Food Chains

• Producers (autotrophs)

• Producers are usually the smallest size organisms within an ecosystem; trees are an exception

• Photosynthesis releases oxygen back to the environment

• Carbon fixation helps to recycle CO₂ from the atmosphere and seawater

• Output of organic compounds (C-H) produced during photosynthesis is called primary productivity

• Herbivores (heterotrophs)

• Feed on producers

• Usually larger than producers, but exist in smaller numbers (trophic pyramid)

• Serve as food (prey) for carnivores (predators)

• Carnivores (heterotrophs)

• Feed on herbivores

• Usually larger than herbivores, with populations smaller than those of the herbiores

• (trophic pyramid); baleen whales are an exception

• 1^o carnivores serve as food (prey) for 2^o carnivores (predators)

• May be several layers of carnivores within a given ecosystem (e.g., in marshes)

• Decomposers (heterotrophs)

• Also called detritovores

• Feed on detritus (dead organisms or products of living creatures) and waste products

• Often very small microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, molds, protozoa, invertebrates)

• May serve as food for other consumers in the ecosystem (e.g., larvae eaten by fish)

• Grazing food chain

• Based on photosynthesis as a source of energy

• Comprised of producers, consumers, and decomposers

• Important in the planktonic community (floating organisms), found in the photic zone of marine ecosystems

• Detritus food chain

• Based on decomposition of detritus as a source of energy

• Comprised of detritovores

• Especially important in the benthos (bottom sediments)

• Food Webs

• Most ecosystems are characterized by complex food webs

• Trophic dynamics may include predation, parasitism, and other interdependent relationships

• Feeding behaviors may be elaborate and adaptive (e.g., attack and avoidance strategies such as armor or camouflage)

Illustration of Food Webs

Trophic Pathways in the Pelagic Environment of Florida Bay

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Biogeochemical Cycles

• Chemicals move through biotic communities in recurring cycles

• Reservoirs may be sedimentary (earth’s surface), or gaseous (atmospheric)

• Pollutants can move through the same pathways (e.g., DDT or mercury following the carbon cycle)

Hydrologic Cycle

• Water vapor formation via evaporation is highest in tropical regions

• Water vapor moves from equator to the poles, then cools and falls back to earth as precipitation

• Sea salt provides precipitation nuclei

• Land runoff carries chemicals and sediments into oceans

Carbon Cycle

• Follows food web dynamics

• CO₂ generated through cell respiration is raw material for photosynthesis

• Dissolved carbon dioxide forms bicarbonate ions

• CO₂ + H₂O ---> H₂CO₃ ---> H⁺ + HCO₃^-

• Calcium carbonate occurs in marine shells

• Calcium carbonate from shells can accumulate to form limestone

• Marine sediments from the past helped to form deposits of fossil fuels (e.g., petroleum, natural gas)

• Oxidation of fossil fuels releases heat, CO2

• Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides released

Nitrogen Cycle

• Producers commonly utilize ammonia (NH₃), nitrite (NO₂), or nitrate (NO₃)

• Conversion to amino acids (precursors of proteins)

• Animals excrete nitrogen as ammonia, urea, or uric acid

• Bacterial degradation of animal wastes

• Atmospheric reservoir of nitrogen (~79% of air at surface)

Sources of nitrates

• Electrical discharges during thunderstorms

• Nitrogen fixation by microorganisms such as cyanobacteria in oceans

• Runoff from land (agricultural, residential) may contain nitrogen compounds

Phosphorus Cycle

• Producers commonly utilize soluble phosphates (PO₄)

• Conversion in living organisms to calcium apatite (teeth, bones), adenosine triphosphate,

• ATP (used in photosynthesis and cell respiration),

• and in nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) for transfer of genetic information.

• Sedimentary reservoir of phosphorus (rocks, ocean sediments)

• Sources of phosphates

• Weathering of rocks

• Microbial conversion of dead organisms

• Runoff from land (agricultural, residential) may contain phosphorus compounds

• Loss of phosphorus in marine systems (sinking from the photic zone into the sediments)

• Off the coasts of California and Peru, large quantities of nutrient-laden materials sink

• Upwelling currents bring nutrients back to surface

• (e.g., 50% of world’s commercial fish catch – 0.1% of ocean’s surface)

Phosphorus Cycle (For Illustration, see textbooks)

Sea Salt Cycle (For Illustration, see textbooks)

Mercury Cycle

• Mercury often released into marine ecosystems as an industrial byproduct (waste)

• Bacterial methylation (attaching CH³ to the mercury) produces methylmercury in sediments

• Bioaccumulation (or biomagnification) of mercury through the food chain

• Methylmercury can accumulate in the tissues of pilot whales (long-distance migration patterns)

• Pilot whales may be consumed by humans (e.g., Faroe Islands off the Danish coast)

• Cause damage to neurological system

Energy Processes - Photosynthesis & Respiration

Reading

• Davis, Chap. 4

• Bertness, Chap. 6,7

Assignments

• Team Activity Due

Lecture Notes

• Coastal Habitats - Estuaries and Bays

• Estuaries and Bays - Physical Geology

Estuarine Community Structure

Organisms and Their Interactions

What is a Species?

• Kind of organism that can interbreed

• Each species has a scientific name

• Homo sapiens for humans

• Vorticella marina for marine ciliated protozoa

• Italicize or underline scientific names

• Individuals are organized into populations

What is a Population?

• Group of the same kind of organism

• Comprised of the same species

• Characteristics of a Population

• Numbers/Size

• Density and Distribution

• Reproductive Rate

• Growth Rate

• Populations are part of communities

What is a Community?

• Group of interacting populations

• Biotic component of an ecosystem

• Characteristics of a community

• Species diversity

• Diversity of species interactions

• e.g., predation, competition, symbiosis

• Food Webs / Trophic Pyramids

Types of Estuarine Communities

• Seagrass communities

• Tidal mudflats

• Salt marshes

• Coastal ponds

• Mangrove swamps

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How do we name organisms?

• Taxonomy – the science of naming organisms

• Based on a few large groups, divided into smaller groups

• Scientific names allow scientists in different locales to share technical information

Taxonomic Schemata

• Kingdom

• Phylum

• Class

• Order

• Family

• Genus

• Species

EXAMPLES OF TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION

Whittaker’s Five Kingdoms

• Procaryota (Monera)

• Unicellular, no membrane bound organelles

• Protista

• Unicellular, may be motile, have organelles

• Plants

• Multicellular, not motile, photosynthesize

• Animals

• Multicellular, motile, complex organ systems, heterotrophic

• Plants

• Multicellular, non-motile, often detritovores

ILLUSTRATION OF FIVE KINGDOMS

Types of Organisms

• Procaryota (Monera)

• Bacteria, Cyanophyta (blue-green algae)

• Very important to detritus food chains

• Act as decomposers of dead organisms and waste materials; active in sediments

• Important to Biogeochemical Cycles

• Sulfur Bacteria

• Nitrifying and Phosphatizing Bacteria

• Pathogenic Bacteria associated with sewage

Protista

• Unicellular Algae – photosynthetic

• Important as phytoplankton

• Live in photic zone - shallow sediments

• Serve as basis of estuarine food chains

• Protozoa – usually not photosynthetic

• Amoeboid forms, ciliates, flagellates

• Active in plankton and benthos

• Intermediate level in food chains

• May have very elaborate behavior patterns

Protista (continued)

• Examples of Unicellular Algae

• Diatoms (characteristic shapes, silicaceous)

• Dinoflagellates (outer shell, flagellates)

• Desmids (green algae, two-part shell)

• Euglenoids (small, green, flagellated)

• Examples of Protozoa

• Amoebae (pseudopods, change body shape, may have an outer shell, like Radiolarians)

• Ciliates (e.g., Vorticella, Euplotes, Pleuronema, Condylstoma, tintinnids)

• Flagellates (colorless, small, e.g., Phacus)

Protista (continued)

• Multicellular algae, found in rock pools, or in deeper water

• Green algae (Ulva, Cladophora)

• Red algae (Polysiphonia)

• Brown algae (Kelp, Fucus, Ascophyllum)

Plants

• Grasses, usually found in near-shore, shallow water communities

• Eelgrass (Zostera marina)

• Cord grass (Spartina sp.)

• Juncus

• Saltworts

• Phragmites (indicates presence of fresh water)

Animals

• Porifera (sponges)

• Small, sac-like animals that filter water

• Coelenterates (hydroids)

• Cylindrical bodies with one opening, ringed with tentacles (anemones, corals, jellyfish)

• Platyhelminths (flatworms)

• Live under rocks (important to detritus cycle)

Animals (continued)

• Molluscs (clams & snails)

• Hard shells, soft bodies (soft shell clams, quahags, razor clams, oysters, scallops,

• periwinkles, oyster drills, Thais, Littorina)

• Annelid Worms – segmented bodies

• Marine worms (polychaetes, like Nereis)

• Very active in soft muds (salt marshes, mud flats, shallow sediments)

Animals (continued)

• Arthropods-hard shells, jointed appendages

• Class: Crustacea (live in water habitats)

• Crabs, lobsters, “bugs”, horseshoe crabs, hermit crabs, amphipods, shrimp, isopods, copepods

• Must shed their shells as they grow

• Very important in plankton, pelagic, and benthic communities.

• Echinoderms

• Spiny skinned animals, radial organization

• Starfish, brittle stars, sand dollars & sea cucumbers

Animals (continued)

• Chordates (vertebrates)

• Fish (aquatic habitats, cartilaginous or bony, scales, fins)

• Common New England species (cod, haddock, flounder, bluefish, skate, sharks)

• Birds (wings, feathers, hard-shelled eggs)

• Common N.E. species (gulls, terns, osprey)

Species Interactions

• Symbiosis (mutualism, commensalism)

• Resource sharing

• Beneficial to at least one of the two species

• Predation (predator/prey)

• Parasitism (parasite/host)

• Competition (space, food, nutrients, water)

Glossary of terms

• Species

• Population

• Community

• Kingdoms

• Detritovores

• Photic zone

• Phytoplankton

• Benthos

• Monera

• Protista

• Algae

• Protozoa

• Porifera

• Coelenterata

• Platyhelminths

• Molluscs

• Annelids

• Arthropods

• Primates

• Zostera marina

• Spartina alterniflora

• Detritus food chain

• Phytoplankton

• Zooplankton

• Keystone species

• Productivity

• Biotic diversity

Estuarine Communties

Estuarine Conditions - General Characteristics

• Tidal mixing (salinity variations)

• Productive ecosystems (high organic content, high biotic diversity, complex behavioral interconnections)

• Often subject to algal blooms (red tides), due to organic input, high temperatures, and poor mixing within the estuary

Seagrass Communities

• Highly productive habitat, dominated in New England by eelgrass, Zostera marina

• Important habitat areas for important commercial fish and shellfish species

• Extensive soft sediments at base of grasses where a rich biotic community thrives (see food chain)

• Many restoration programs in place

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Tidal Mudflats

• Soft muds, exposed at low tide, excellent habitat for burrowing animals

• Molluscs, annelid worms, small arthropods

• Productive community, heavily dependent on detritus food chain

• Important habitat for commercial shellfish

• Quahags, soft-shell clams, scallops

Salt Marshes

• Dominated by grasses (Spartina alterniflora in Rhode Island), interspersed by tidal streams

• May contain a mudflat area or salt pond (see photos)

• Highly productive community, high biodiversity

• Nursery area for many fish & shellfish

• Complex food chain (detritus type)

• Many restoration programs underway

Coastal Ponds

• Shallow ponds, which may or may not be directly connected to the ocean

• Ideal habitat for shellfish, especially oyster beds (lowered salinity blocks presence of oyster drill)

• Rhode Island once a major producer of oysters for the East Coast)

• Also called “salt ponds” (protected under the R.I. CZM Plan); SEE HANDOUT

• Threatened by boating excesses

Mangrove Swamps

• Found in southern waters, dominated by mangrove trees (keystone species)

• Creates ideal habitat for animal life (see photos)

• Protection from wave action; high organic content

• High biodiversity

• Complex food chain

Rocky Intertidal Zone

• Rocky intertidal zone exists between high and low tide (area below low tide line is called the subtidal zone)

• Rock pools (also called tide pools) form between rocks

• Challenges to Organisms

• How to cling to rocks in strong wave action

• How to withstand desiccation in summer low tides

• How to deal with salinity variation in summer (increased) or in spring/fall storms (diluted)

• Home to coelenterates (sea anemones), molluscs (snails, mussels), crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, gammarids, copepods), echinoderms (starfish, sea cucumbers)

• Green, red, and brown algae common

• Examples of Rock Pool Algae: Cladophora, Polysiphonia, Fucus, Ascophyllum

• High diversity of species and interactions among the inhabitants, with elaborate food chains

Coral Reefs

• Coral Reefs have very high biotic diversity, especially in tropical waters

• Every kingdom represented, with dominance by the coral animals (coelenterates) and their symbiotic algae

• Rich in fish life, occupying every possible niche on the reef

• Complex food web, with many behavioral adaptations for sharing the reef

• Coral reefs endangered throughout the world

Summary

• Estuarine environments have high biotic diversity, and are highly adaptable

• Characterized by changing dynamics (salinity, tidal exchange, temperature)

• Feature highly complex food webs and behavioral interconnections

• Important support systems for coastal regions; support deep water fisheries

Glossary of terms

• Seagrass Community

• Tidal Mudflats

• Coastal Ponds

• Salt Ponds

• Mangrove Swamps

• Rock Pools

• Coral reefs

• Benthos

• Productivity

• Keystone species

• Biotic diversity

• Tidal mixing

• Red tides

• Toxic dinoflagellates

• Phytoplankton

• Zooplankton

• Salt Marshes

• Salt Ponds (Coastal Lagoons)

• Mangrove Swamps

• Seagrass Communities

Reading

• Davis, Chap. 5, 6

Lecture Notes

Coastal Habitats - Rivers and Coasts - Barriers

Deltas

Sedimentation Processes

Tides

Beaches - Dunes - Barriers

Beaches - a dynamic, changing part of a coast - sediment moves with each wave

Beaches extend from the low tide line landward to the beginning of permanent vegetation, or the next geomorphic feature (dune, rocky cliff, seawall, etc.)

Sections of a Beach:

• nearshore

• foreshore - also includes

  • the swash zone

  • ridge and runnel (swash bar)

  • backshore

  • storm ridge

Types of Beaches

• reflective beach

• dissipative beach

Beach Materials

(nearly anything that can be transported by waves can form a beach)

• mud beach

• gravel beach

Beach Processes

waves and the currents they generate influence the sediment and the structure of beaches

• each crash of a wave suspends an amount of sediment directly proportional to the size of wave

• the sediment is then moved by currents; types of currents:

  • combined flow current

  • longshore currents

  • rip currents

  • swash currents

Beach Cycles - Sediment Transport

• accretional beaches

• storm beaches

• • erosion profile

• • storm beach is a temporary condition

Coastal Dunes (large piles of sand that have accumulated)

• An available supply of sediment and wind are required

• Block strong ocean waves

• Coastal dunes are not restricted to barrier islands, although all barrier islands have at least small dunes

Dune Formation and Distribution

Sea breeze and land breeze

Sand shadows

Gravel lag

Much of the wind-blown sand accumulates just landward of the active backwash

Obstructions

• • bedrock cliffs

  • vegetation

  • existing dunes

  • human construction

Dune Ridge (linear arrangement of dunes, one dune wide; called the foredune ridge)

Dune Dynamics

Dunes are quite vulnerable to even the modest storm

Rising sea levels exposes dunes to further erosion

Wind can cause the migration of part or all of the dune

• blowover

  • angle of repose

• migrate landward

Barrier Islands

Barrier islands are characteristic off the coasts along trailing edge coasts

*They form as sediment accumulates by the combined action of waves and wave-generated longshore currents

*The barrier islands protect the landward part of the coast against wave attack; include:

- barrier beaches

- barrier spits

- barrier reefs

Barrier Islands

• wave-dominated and mixed-energy depositional systems

• make up 12-15% of the Earth's outer coastline

• relatively young: < 7000 years old

• accepted theory of origination: waves caused sediment to accumulate in an upward shoaling fashion that eventually led to a supertidal sandbar

BarrierIsland Components

• Backbarrier

• Washover Fans

• Lagoons

• TidalInlets

• Tidal Deltas

• • ebb delta

    • tide dominated

    • wave dominated

• • flood delta

    • tide dominated

BarrierIsland Types

Waves dominant - long and narrow

Mixed wave-tide dominant - drum stick appearance - longshore current is interupted at an inlet and more sediment is deposited at mouth of inlet

Reading

• Davis, Chap. 7

• Bertness, Chap. 5

• Shumway (reading TBA)

Assignments

• Problem 2 Due - Tuesday

Lecture Notes

Estuarine Conditions - General Characteristics

• Tidal mixing (salinity variations)

• Productive ecosystems (high organic content, high biotic diversity, complex behavioral interconnections)

• Often subject to algal blooms (red tides), due to organic input, high temperatures, and poor mixing within the estuary

Seagrass Communities

• Highly productive habitat, dominated in New England by eelgrass, Zostera marina

• Important habitat areas for important commercial fish and shellfish species

• Extensive soft sediments at base of grasses where a rich biotic community thrives (see food chain)

• Many restoration programs in place

Tidal Mudflats

• Soft muds, exposed at low tide, excellent habitat for burrowing animals

• Molluscs, annelid worms, small arthropods

• Productive community, heavily dependent on detritus food chain

• Important habitat for commercial shellfish

• Quahags, soft-shell clams, scallops

Salt Marshes

• Dominated by grasses (Spartina alterniflora in Rhode Island), interspersed by tidal streams

• May contain a mudflat area or salt pond (see photos)

• Highly productive community, high biodiversity

• Nursery area for many fish & shellfish

• Complex food chain (detritus type)

• Many restoration programs underway

Coastal Ponds

• Shallow ponds, which may or may not be directly connected to the ocean

• Ideal habitat for shellfish, especially oyster beds (lowered salinity blocks presence of oyster drill)

• Rhode Island once a major producer of oysters for the East Coast)

• Also called “salt ponds” (protected under the R.I. CZM Plan); SEE HANDOUT

• Threatened by boating excesses

Mangrove Swamps

• Found in southern waters, dominated by mangrove trees (keystone species)

• Creates ideal habitat for animal life (see photos)

• Protection from wave action; high organic content

• High biodiversity

• Complex food chain

Rocky Intertidal Zone

• Rocky intertidal zone exists between high and low tide (area below low tide line is called the subtidal zone)

• Rock pools (also called tide pools) form between rocks

• Challenges to Organisms

• How to cling to rocks in strong wave action

• How to withstand desiccation in summer low tides

• How to deal with salinity variation in summer (increased) or in spring/fall storms (diluted)

• Home to coelenterates (sea anemones), molluscs (snails, mussels), crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, gammarids, copepods), echinoderms (starfish, sea cucumbers)

• Green, red, and brown algae common

• Examples of Rock Pool Algae: Cladophora, Polysiphonia, Fucus, Ascophyllum

• High diversity of species and interactions among the inhabitants, with elaborate food chains

Coral Reefs

• Coral Reefs have very high biotic diversity, especially in tropical waters

• Every kingdom represented, with dominance by the coral animals (coelenterates) and their symbiotic algae

• Rich in fish life, occupying every possible niche on the reef

• Complex food web, with many behavioral adaptations for sharing the reef

• Coral reefs endangered throughout the world

Summary

• Estuarine environments have high biotic diversity, and are highly adaptable

• Characterized by changing dynamics (salinity, tidal exchange, temperature)

• Feature highly complex food webs and behavioral interconnections

• Important support systems for coastal regions; support deep water fisheries

Glossary of terms

• Seagrass Community

• Tidal Mudflats

• Coastal Ponds

• Salt Ponds

• Mangrove Swamps

• Rock Pools

• Coral reefs

• Benthos

• Productivity

• Keystone species

• Biotic diversity

• Tidal mixing

• Red tides

• Toxic dinoflagellates

• Phytoplankton

• Zooplankton

General Guidelines for Exams

Students are expected to be familiar with terminology and concepts, and to demonstrate a basic mastery and understanding of all assigned materials.

Examination will include a few short answer questions where students will construct written responses - Students may bring ONE PAGE of notes to use for the short answer questions! No phones/no laptops.

Some questions will address problem-solving situations where students will need to understand the issue or problem, identify solutions and/or intervention strategies.

• Specific Review Topics for Exam I - 28 October 2021

• Exam Topics/Outline for Overview of Coastal Geology/Ecology

• Weeks 1-6 - SYLLABUS

Coasts - Introduction

• Coastal Research (WW II)
  Major differences between the West Coast and East Coast (U.S.)

• Geological time period for coastal processes (Level I, Level II, Level III processes) - examples of processes from each level
  Coastal Processes - short term vs. long term (Waves, currents, tides; climate change; mountain formation and erosion)

• Erosion vs. deposition (erosional or depositional shorelines)
  USGS Types of Coasts (Rocky shores, Sandy beaches, Coastal wetlands, Coral reefs)
  Tsunami (Causes; Aceh, Indonesia Tsunami 2004; Fukushima, Japan Tsunami at Fukushima 2011; Indonesian Tsunami - Palo 2018)
  

• Links:
  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ObgaXv3qhAw
  http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/2013/japan-basic-policy-full.html
  https://reliefweb.int/disaster/eq-2018-000156-idn
  

Plate Tectonics

Continental drift and sea floor spreading; Alfred Wegener

Hypothesis evidence - include paleomagnetic evidence; Plate Tectonic mechanism)

Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

• Mechanism

• Driving Force

• Plate Margins

• Divergent Plate Margin

• Convergent Plate Margin

• Subduction Zone

• Collision Zone

Coastal Features Due to Plate Tectonics: Coastal Classifications

• Leading vs. Trailing vs. Marginal Edge Coasts

• Where located in the U.S.

Role of Tectonic Activity

• Sinking and uplift of tectonic plates (see USGS Tutorial on Plate Tectonics) Visit website: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/dynamic.html

Changing Sea Levels

1. Ice Ages

2. Causes of Sea Level Change
   Subsidence due to compaction and fluid withdrawal
   Isostasy - subsidence and rebound of the lithosphere
   Climate fluctuations
   Advance and retreat of ice sheets
   Tectonic activity

3. Downwelling and Upwelling

Understanding Tide Charts

Review of Coastal Ecology Issues

Coastal Use Patterns

• Factors affecting population density along coasts

• Connections between human activity and damage to coastal regions

• Complexities of mixed uses for coastal lands

• Ecological values of coastal resources

• Stakeholders in Policy Matters

• Examples of legislation protecting U.S. coasts

• (e.g., Coastal Zone Management Act, Coastal Barrier Protection Act)

• Coastal Problems & Challenges

• (Examples: Storms, Erosion, Flooding)

• (How do physical features and human activities converge to enhance these effects?)

• (How can we design better approaches that match human alterations to natural processes?)

• Coastal Planning Issues

• Loss of Wildlife Habitat (causes, avoidance strategies, increased respect)

• Importance of nutrient additions to shallow water coastal ecosystems (nitrates, phosphates)

• Sources of the nutrient enrichment (sewage, agriculture, golf courses, sewage treatment systems, etc.)

Overview of Coastal Ecology

• Coastal Ecosystems (examples, links between biotic and abiotic factors)

• Variations in biotic communities on different coasts (form and function adaptations)

• Importance of coastal plains

• Zones of the ocean (pelagic/benthic/planktonic)

• Factors affecting life in the oceans

• Types of coastal ecosystems- recognize illustrations of different habitats

(estuaries, salt marshes, rocky shores, sandy beaches, mangrove swamps, coral reefs)

• Effects of climate change on coastlines and human communities

Additional Terminology for Exam

• barrier beaches and barrier islands

• benthic communities

• Coastal Barriers Protection Act

• coastal lagoons (also called salt ponds)

• coastal zone (definition)

• Coastal Zone Management Act

• collision zone

• CRMC - Rhode Island

• CZM planning

• estuaries

• climate change and coastal shorelines

• intertidal zone

• leading edge

• lithosphere

• mangrove swamps

• marginal edge

• NOAA

• planktonic community

• plate tectonics

• rock pools

• salinity

• salt marshes

• stakeholders

• subduction zone

• trailing edge

REMINDER

ON THIS EXAM, IT IS IMPORTANT TO BLEND INFORMATION LEARNED FROM

LECTURES, DISCUSSION AND TEXTUAL READINGS!

General Guidelines for Exams

• Students are expected to be familiar with terminology and concepts, and to demonstrate a basic mastery and understanding of all assigned materials, including textual reading and posted lecture outlines.

• Examination will include some short answer questions where students will construct written responses.

• Some questions will address problem-solving situations where students will need to understand the issue or problem, and to identify solutions and/or propose intervention strategies.

YOU MAY BRING WITH YOU 2 PAGEs OF PRINTED NOTES (one side only) WHICH YOU WILL SHOW AT THE START OF THE EXAM AND SUBMIT AT THE END OF THE EXAM. ADVICE: Write your own study guide! Don't record things you know well.

Course Review Topics for Final Exam

• Exam covers lecture and class discussion for Weeks 7,8,9,10, 11 and 13 on the Course Syllabus (Power Point lectures posted on CANVAS)

• Additional Sources: Assigned Text Chapters and Handouts

• Review Material (Weeks 1-6)

• Physical and Ecological Characteristics of Estuaries (Lectures 1-C and 6-A)

  • Type of Circulation Within Estuaries

  • Salinity Characteristics - stratified - partially mixed - fully mixed

• Tidal flats

  • Between high and low tide - model of sediment transport by tidal action (slower movement of water leads to settlement of particles)

• Salt marshes

  • Type of grasses and other vegetation - trap sediment - burrowing animals

  • Common marsh grass in Southern New England - Spartina alterniflora

• Seagrass communities

  • Grasses rooted underwater; high biodiversity - nursery areas for small fish and shellfish

  • Example in Southern New England - Eelgrass Communities - Zostera marina

• Rock Pools

  • Located in intertidal zones on rocky coasts; high energy; strong wave action; organisms eurythermal and euryhaline

• Mangrove swamps

  • Located in intertidal zones in warmer waters - roots form thickets - sheltered habitats; storm protection

• Living Communities in Estuarine Environments - Trophic Dynamics and Food Webs

  • Canvas Lecture #7 and accompanying chapters in the Bertness text for illustrations and explanations of the trophic relationships and the ecological challenges for the organisms in each community.

  • For each of the biotic communities listed above, know the following:

    • Main characteristics of the ecosystem

    • Physical challenges to organisms (waves, currents, sediment, temperature, low tide exposure)

    • Major chemical variations (salinity, dissolved oxygen, nutrients)

    • Biological dynamics (main predators, relative shelter/exposure, biodiversity)

    • Sediment-dominated? Wave dominated?

    • High energy or low energy habitats?

    • Planktonic or Benthic Communities?

    • Grazing food chain dominant? Detrital food chain dominant?

    • Basic strategies for organisms in that environment?

• Basic Taxonomy of the Organisms (which category of living organisms):

  • Canvas Lecture #7

  • KNOW the five Kingdoms and be able to differentiate them; know examples of organisms for each Kingdom:

    • Prokaryota (sometimes called Monera)

    • Protista

    • Plants

    • Animals

    • Fungi

  • Be familiar with the following PHYLUM groups of Animals and know an estuarine community where each would likely to be found (e.g., Molluscs in Salt Marshes or Mud Flats; or Echinoderms such as sea stars in Rock Pools, etc.)

    • (Recognize a description of the phylum group and be able to match a familiar organism to its phylum)

    • Cnidarians (hydroids, sea jellies, examples include sea anemones & corals)

    • Mollusca (clams, mussels, snails)

    • Arthropods (crustaceans such as lobsters, crabs, shrimp, copepods in zooplankton)

    • Annelids (polychaete worms such as the clamworm, Nereis)

    • Echinoderms (sea stars, brittle stars, sand dollars, sea cucumbers)

    • Chordates (fish, birds, sharks, reptiles)

  • What are the important plants in estuaries? (Include seaweeds)

  • What are some different kinds of Protista (protozoa and algae) in estuaries?

  • What kinds of research projects are done in estuarine environments?

  • What is the difference between populations and communities?

• More Recent Material - Weeks 9-13

• Coral Reef Ecology and Research - Canvas Lecture #12

• Be able to describe the following behaviors commonly found on reefs and give an example of each:

  • Symbiosis

  • Predation

  • Parasitism

  • Competition for Space, Food, etc.

• Threats to Coral Reefs Worldwide

  • Bleaching Episodes - Implications

  • Response to Bleaching Events - End Results - Research Studies

  • Importance of Zooxanthellae Algae to Reef-Building Corals (e.g., Acropora)

  • Coral Diseases

  • Present Condition of Great Barrier Reef

  • Be able to describe at least one example of a coral reef protection program

  • Be familiar with the Team Presentations on each coral reef (Web links will be posted on CANVAS).

• Threats to Fisheries - CANVAS Lecture #8

  • Major threats and root causes for the decline in fisheries worldwide

  • Importance of salt marshes and estuaries in New England fisheries

  • Importance of coral reefs in protecting coastal fisheries - food supply implications

• Legal Infrastructure Important to Coastal Management (U.S. and International) - Week 12 - Canvas Lectures #3 and #9

  • • NOAA

    • U.S. Department of Fish & Wildlife

    • Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSFCMA)

    • EPA

    • Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA)

    • Rhode Island CZM Plan (Role of CRMC; Harbor Management Plans; Coastal Flooding Assessment Tools)

    • United Nations agencies and agreements - e.g., UNEP, IPCC, Law of the Sea, etc.

• Climate Change and Coastal Resiliency Issues - Canvas Lectures #7B, 10 and 11A

  • Impacts of rising sea level, increased intense storms, acidification of seawater and effects on molluscs, arthropods and coral reefs, and relocation of species

  • Effects on island nations and heavily populated coastal regions

  • Need to change and upgrade infrastructures in coastal communities

  • Know at least two examples of effective Coastal Resiliency Programs

• Commercial Utilization of Coastlines - Class Discussions - Lecture

  • State CZM Plans

  • Harbor Plans

  • Energy Production and Impacts

• Terminology

No specific terms - use guidelines above

• TAKE-HOME QUESTION: Team-Based Response (Prepare an annotated food web for the Reef selected for your website presentation). Worth 20 points.

• The exam will be taken using the CANVAS Exam Tools, with Respondus Lockdown Browser.

Reading

• Beatley, et al., Chap. 4,5

• Other Readings TBA

Assignments

• Field Trip Reports Due

Lecture Notes

Managing Mixed Use Coastal Areas

Fisheries in Trouble

• World is running out of fish

• More than 40% of world’s fish have been overfished

• (U.S. National Marine Fisheries data)

• Four of the 17 major fisheries are commercially depleted; nine others in serious decline

• (United Nations Food and Agriculture Office data)

• Cambodia, Thailand, and Taiwan expanding navies to protect fishing grounds

Fisheries in Trouble (continued)

• New England fishing grounds in crisis

• Dramatic declines in fish stocks

• Haddock, cod, and flounder were 75% of the catch in 1960s (now about 25%)

• Few menhaden in the Gulf of Mexico

• Economic losses due to depleted fish stocks

• About $350 million in 1990

• Loss of around 14,000 jobs

Fisheries in Trouble (continued)

• Abundance Statistics for Rhode Island

• Oysters (15 million lbs. of meat in 1910; 0.01 million lbs. from 1955 to 1996)

• Winter flounder (<0.1 million lbs. in early 1950’s, to 9 million lbs. in early 1980’s, to 1 million lbs. in the late 1990’s)

• Fish populations vary widely; e.g. Striped bass fishery collapsed (1970’s) and rebounded to 1 million lbs.(1990’s)

Economic Threats in RI

• Landings of commercial fisheries in RI are valued at approximately $75 million

• Economic impact of seafood production in RI is estimated to be approximately $700 million

• Recreational fishers make about 1 million fishing trips annually in RI, valued at approximately $150 million

Reasons for Decline

• Three main reasons for fishery decline

• Overfishing

• Habitat Destruction

• Bycatch (“collateral damage”)

Stakeholders in fishery problems

• Commercial fishermen & marine industries

• Tourists & tourism providers; consumers

• Seafood industry (restaurants & suppliers)

• Scientists and policy makers

Role of Magnuson Act

• Magnuson Act: Fishery Conservation & Management Act

• Set 200 mile limit as U.S. waters

• Restricted foreign vessels from overfishing; did not prevent U.S. boats from overfishing

• Technological improvements on boats, e.g., Factory trawlers (400 ft. vessels that catch and process fish onboard)

Other Proposed Legislation

• Gilchrest Bill to limit overfishing

• Defined and prohibited overfishing

• When in doubt, biology would outweigh economics

• Restrict construction on wetlands and shorelines

• Ban mechanisms that cause bycatch

• Tighten conflict of interest rules for members of regional fishery councils

Other Proposed Legislation (continued)

• Sen. John Kerry and Rep. Larry Studds from Massachusetts

• Require Mass. Fisheries Management Council to develop a plan for rebuilding New England groundfish stocks

• Create a $5 million annual fisheries reinvestment program to encourage fishing for underutilized species

Technological Issues

• Bottom trawlers that scrape away the living benthic community, e.g., used for scallops and bottom fish

• http://www.sfos.uaf.edu/npmr/projects/fisheries/108/pgal/photo08.html

• Small mesh nets that capture unwanted fish that are killed or injured and then thrown overboard

• E.g., Shrimp boats capturing finfish as bycatch

• GIS equipment for fish-finding

• Widespread utilitization

• Precision of satellite technology

• Achieves broader reach of fishing vessels

Economic Issues

• Global markets create insatiable need for fish and fish byproducts

• Fishing boats and gear are expensive and most fishing companies are in debt

• Operating expenses are also high

• Pushing the limits of the resource become crucial in order to survive

Fisheries Planning

• Historically, fisheries management plans are usually based on a single-species model

• Do not accurately reflect how different species of fish depend on each other

• Fish species are connected with their surroundings

Regional Fishery Management Councils

• Regional Councils are required by federal law

• Controversy regarding membership on the councils (representative of all stakeholders, or industry-controlled?)

Principles of Management

• Management for species preservation and long term viability of fishery (limit catch by species or quantity)

• Management for short term economic relief to fishing industry (short term limits, or no limits)

• Switch to underutilized species

• Management of marine ecosystems (need solid science and extensive data)

Managing Marine Ecosystems

• Using past trends to design better fishery management plans

• Long history of exploitation

• Harvesting (fishing) based on economic value of a species, not on its ecological role in the marine ecosystem

• Leads to local extinctions and worldwide ecosystem damage

• Resultant loss of keystone species may be irreversible

• Shift toward pelagic, rapid-turnover, low-value species

• Harvest limits may seem safe for a single species, but cannot maintain ecosystem viability

• Fishing patterns have resulted in less sustainable ecosystems

Managing Marine Ecosystems (continued)

• Aim toward a “rebuilding” policy, not one for “sustaining” current catches and biomass

• Planning needs to integrate local and traditional environmental knowledge (TEK)

• associated with aboriginal and indigenous peoples

• Neet to set aside large, “no-take” reserves

• Reintroduction of high-value species which once were endemic to an area

Impacts of Catch Limits

• Major economic impact in the fishing industry (lost jobs, loan defaults, etc.)

• Reduction of fish and shellfish for seafood industry

• Reduced supply of fish and shellfish

• Higher consumer prices

• Changes competitive dynamics for seafood restaurants

Other Solutions

• Use of mariculture or aquaculture to provide new sources of seafood

• Culturing processes also generate pollution in the coastal zone (BOD levels, algal blooms, oxygenation problems)

• Must be linked with efforts by seafood industry to market new products

Readings

• (Available as Handouts or on Bryant’s Electronic Reserve)

• Pitcher, T.J. 2001. “Fisheries managed to rebuild ecosystems? Reconstructing the past to salvage the future.” Ecological Applications 11(2):601-617.

• DeAlteris, J.T., M. Gibson, L.G. Skrobe. 2000. Fisheries of Rhode Island (Working Draft, prepared for the Narragansett Bay Summit, 4/14/00).

• Margolis, J. “World running out of fish.” Chicago Tribune (Handout)

• Saltus, R. “Scientists: Big picture needed to up fish stocks.” (Handout)

• Oceans & Fisheries Data Table 13.1. World Resources 1998-99. (Handout)

Summary

• Fish are an important food item

• Fisheries are in decline worldwide

• Causes include overfishing, expanded technology, deteriorated coastal wetlands, ocean pollution,

• mining and extraction activities

• Solutions are complex and difficult to implement

Glossary

• Demersal fish

• Flounder, halibut, sole, cod, hake, haddock, bass

• Pelagic fish

• Jack, herring, mullet, sardines, anchovies, tuna, mackerel

• Overfishing

• Catch exceeds replacement rate

• Bycatch

• Taking unwanted species while fishing

• Regional Fishery Mgmt. Councils

• Develop Mgmt. Plans to protect fisheries

• GIS Techniques

• Geographic Informations. Systems used for computer mapping

Questions to be Addressed

• How should quotas be set for fish? Can we depend on computer models?

• Who should have the last word on fishery management plans?

• How can we avoid bycatch?

• Protection plans will cause seafood prices to rise; how will consumers react?

• How does fishing for “underutilized” species affect food chains?

• What is the relative role of coastal wetlands in preserving fisheries?

• Can we manage marine fisheries in a sustainable way? Is ecosystem management a better approach?

• What countries are heavily dependent on fish as a food item (see chart)?

• Will declining fisheries have a great effect on developing nations than on developed nations?

• Will global warming affect fish species?

Ocean Dumping - Harbor Dredging - Sewage Treatment - Shipping Wastes

Oceans are vast (70% of earth's cover) and represent attractive short term solutions for waste disposal

Federal legislation and regulation enacted in 1972

Reduced the number of ocean dumping sites, but ocean dumping continues to degrade the oceanic environment

If population growth in coastal regions continue, increased amounts of wastes will end up in the oceans

Types of Wastes

• dredge spoils - industrial and municipal discharges removed to generally improve navigation

• industrial wastes - acids, refinery wastes, paper mill wastes, pesticide wastes, and assorted liquid wastes

• sewage sludge - solid material that remains after municipal wastewater treatment

• construction and demolition debris - cinder block, plaster, excavation dirt, stone, tile, and other materials

• solid waste - refuse, garbage, or trash, explosive, radioactive wastes, and untreated urban sewage

Ocean Pollution That Can Result

• Health hazard - shellfish have been found to contain organisms that produce diseases such as polio and hepatitis

• At least 20% of the nation's commercial shellfish beds have been closed because of pollution

• Beaches and bays have been closed to recreation uses

• Effects on ocean life

  • marine organisms - result in death or retarded growth, vitality, and reproductivity

  • reduction in the DO (dissolved oxygen) - increased BOD as a result of decomposition of organic waste lowers the O2 content necessary for marine life

  • eutrophication - caused by nutrient-rich waste in shallow waters resulting in killing algae that may wash up and pollute coastal area

• Habitat Changes

• Baltic and North Seas: urban and agricultural pollutants have raised the concentration of nutrients in the water

• Algae blooms of toxic algae are common -1988 an algal bloom was responsible for killing nearly all marine life to a depth of 50 ft (e.g. Pfiesteria piscicida)

• Major ecosystems such as coral reefs, estuaries, and salt marshes and mangrove swamps are threatened by ocean pollution

• Oceans are giant sinks for materials from the continents, and parts of the marine environment are extremely fragile

• Effects on Marine Organisms in the Planktonic and Benthic Environments

• Upper few mm of the ocean tend to concentrate pollutants, such as toxic chemicals and heavy metals

• One study reported that concentrations of heavy metals in the upper 3 mm are from 10-1000x higher than in the deeper waters

• The base of the food chain consists of planktonic life abundant in the upper 3 mm of the ocean water

• Sediments can also trap pollutants (e.g., Prudence Island studies)

• Effects on Humans

• Contaminated marine organisms may transmit toxic elements or diseases to people who eat them

• A loss of visual appeal when beaches and bay become polluted

• 
  

• The Conflicts Around Ocean Dumping

• Ocean areas near the shore are most subject to ocean dumping and are the most desirable as fisheries

• Examples:

• Los Angeles: for more than 30 years, sewage and sludge have been dumped several miles offshore into Santa Monica Bay

• rate of flow was about 400 M gallons per day, of which only about 15% had secondary treatment

• LA successfully fought state and federal regulations to avoid providing secondary treatment for all sewage

• Santa Monica Bay became seriously polluted by the sewage and by other waste disposal dating back to the 1940s - oil refinery wastes, cyanide, and PCBs

• Concerns over potential health-related issues finally forced LA to spend $172 M for secondary treatment

• Water quality in the New York Bight (off the coast from New York City) is greatly reduced and in some areas there are "dead zones"

• Same problems near most large coastal cities (Asia, South America, Africa, etc.)

• Dredge Spoils

• Represents the vast majority of all ocean dumping -conducted to primarily improve navigation

• Usually disposed of only a few km away

• About 1/3 is seriously polluted with heavy metals and other industrial, municipal, and agricultural wastes

• Oorganic pollutants are adsorbed to the organic portion of the sediment; polarity (hydrophilic) vs. non-polarity (hydrophobic)

• Long range alternative to disposal of dredge spoils is to phase out ocean disposal

• Not currently possible to do so because of the volume of sediment involved

• Dredging

• Dredging is the process of removing material (sediment, debris, and organic matter) from the bottom of the water body in order to make it deeper

• Allows for the commerical and recreational water traffic such as oil tankers, cargo ships, tour boats, ferries, and larger power or sailboats to navigate safely

• Providence River channel leading to the Port of Providence has not been dredged in 25 years

• Estuary is filling with the continuous delivery of sediment from the watershed

• Harbors, channels and rivers eventually fill in if dredging is not performed

• Threatens safe navigation for boaters and straining the economic viability of marinas

• Over 25 facilities in Rhode Island need to dredge a total of over a million cubic yards of sediment

• Port of Providence is the entry point for 98% of RI's fuel supply

• Portions of the channel are so shallow that large vessels must off-load their cargo onto barges in the middle of the Bay

• Shallow channels may cause oils spill accidents; e.g. North Cape oil spill off the coast of Matunuck, RI - large lobster kill - damage to coastal ponds

• Without access to the port fuel oil prices could increase

• Providence River dredging project - 17 mile navigation channel connects Providence Harbor to deep water near Prudence Island

• Plan to restore the channel from 30 ft to its authorized depth of 40 ft - never-ending saga of studies accessing dredging

• RI is the only state in southern New England NOT to have a permanently designated disposal site

• Coastal Resources Management Council (CRMC) has contracted Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE) conduct an assessment to select a permanent offshore disposal site

• Past sites for dredged materials - somewhere close to the harbor such as wetlands or marshes, or deeper locations in the estuary

• Sediment accumulation in the upper reaches of Narragansett Bay may be contaminated with heavy metals and toxic compounds that pose a health risk

• Require special disposal methods - capping with clean sediment to isolate the contaminated sediment from the surrounding sea life and water

• Save the Bay is advocating prevention of in-bay disposal and the exploration of beneficial use of dredge materials

• Environmental laws (e.g. CWA, RI Coastal Zone Management Act) have led to restrictions on where dredged materials can be dumped and has led to the development of innovative solutions:

• Beneficial use of dredged materials - valued instead of simply thrown away

• Examples: construction materials;cinder blocks, cement structures (used in highway construction projects in NY/NJ)

• Beach nourishment - Block Island's Old Harbor - sediment is deposited offshore and mixed with sand to renourish State Beach - need to consider toxics

• Landfill cover/capping

• Brownfields redevelopment - reclamation of contaminated, former industrial sites

• 
  

• Flounder spawning ground: winter flounder have had a difficult time recovering in Narragansett Bay

• Possible impacts on fisheries if dumped in-bay or on shore

• Spoils were dumped 10 miles south of Pt Judith, which is a flounder migratory area

• URI scientists conducted baseline studies of the upper Bay prior to and during dredging

• Dredging was avoided in the upper reaches of the river during the spawning season

• Block Island residents continue to worry that they will be impacted by the sediment dumping

Regulations on Ocean Dumping

Harbor Management Plans

• Unique beauty of seacoasts

• Increase in population density of coastal areas has brought increased demand for water related activities and uses of harbors and shoreline areas

• Changes in coastal land use have led to user conflicts and water quality degradation

• Example: Narragansett Bay

• Named one of the 10 most endangered places in America by Scenic America

• One of a few estuaries in the country that is still relatively free from heavy industry

• Narragansett Bay supports a thriving and diverse ecosystem of aquatic life, shore birds, plants, and marine animals

• Support a small but significant commerical fishing industry

• Tourism adds over $2 Billion annually to the local economy

• Narragansett Bay Coastal Management Program

• Rhode Island's Coastal Resources Management Council (CRMC) has enacted regulations and planning programs designed to stimulate coastal communities to develop comprehensive municipal harbor management plans (HMPs)

• Purpose of HMPs

• Provide a comprehensive and continuous evaluation of municipal harbor management activities

• Provide for a detailed assessment of current and/or proposed municipal harbor mangement programs, ordinances or Regulations to ensure compliance with applicable regulatory and management requirements of RI

• Delegate the primary management authority and respoonsibilities of consistent local harbor management programs to the municipalities

• Each municipality will do the following:

• Provide a long range vision for controlled growth and development of harbor and shoreline areas

• Integrated the Harbor Management Plan with a community's comprehensive land use plan and local zoning regulations

• HMPs allow a community to guide expansion of waterfront development, marinas, mooring fields and other recreational boating activities

• HMP Process

• Successful harbor plans have had the most participation from the widest spectrum of the general public

• Process requires that communities consider as many interests as possilbe when drafting the plan so as to represent the needs of the community it is designed to serve

• Issues addressed by a HMP

• Shortage of public and private marina space and boat launching areas

• Need or potential need to dredge or redredge navigation channels and marinas

• Encroachments within federally maintained navigation channels

• Need for more efficient utilization of mooring space within anchorage areas, for more mooring space, and allocate moorings fairly for private and commercial use

• Need to provide safe harbor and shore access for transient vessels

• Need for improved and expanded public recreational facilities and opportunities

• Need to protect unique wildlife areas; shore and water habitats

• Desire to improve and protect commerical and recreational shellfishing

• Potential for expansion of existing, or development of new, water dependent uses along the developed urban waterfronts

• Need to provide approopriate restrictions on water uses and users in order to minimize conflicts between competing activities

• Need to coordination of harbor information and management activities among agencies, commissions, and departments on the state, federal and local levels

• Prevention or restoration of periodic or long term water quality problems related to recreational boating

• Required elements of a HMP

• Ensure public access

• Ensure water quality

• Develop a municipal mooring management plan

• Storm preparedness strategies

• Selected Iissues

• Raw sewage discharge

• Most immediate environmental threat to the health of the Bay is the annual discharge of about 2.2. B gallons of untreaed sewage into waterways in the Upper Bay area after heavy rainfalls

• Aging combined sanitary and stormwater sewage system (combined sewer overflows - CSO) cannot handle severe wet-weather events

• Due to dangerously high bacteria levels, leads to the closure of beaches and shellfishing beds

• Solution - collection of drain waters during heavy rain events and then pump to a treatment plant after the storm

• City of Providence constructed a large underground tunnel for storage of collected stormwater

• Restoring Natural Habitats

• 300 years of industrial development- much of the damage cannot correct itself naturally

• Proactive approach to restore salt marshes, eelgrass beds, fish runs, etc.

• Create aninformation systemto help make decisions about habitat restoration

• Save the Bay (a Rhode Island NGO) has played a significant role in supporting and encouraging habitat restoration

• Port Development - Quonset Point - Davisville

• In response to growing international trade the Quonset-Davisville site is used to import automobiles and seafood

• Commercial container shipping in the region is expected to continue growth once economic recovery improves

• Expansion issues:

• Proposal to deepen harbor to 50 feet - threaten to alter circulation patterns and disrupt migrating routes for lobsters and fish

• Vessels create new pathways for non-native species to invade the Bay, threatening the survival of native species and the Bay's ecosystem as a whole

• Expansion of the port would increase truck traffic by about 1,600 truck per day

• Require use of significant acres of land to accommodate a major port expansion

• Suggested solution:

• Analysis of the major environmental impact (environmental impact statement - EIS)

• Create a smaller, less intrusive port or light industrial/commercial park that more closely matches local needs and economics

• Stakeholder Groups

• Tourists & tourism providers; consumers

• Seafood industry (restaurants & suppliers)

• Scientists and policy makers

Clean-Up Technologies

• On the Water

• Boom/sweepers/skimmers

• Primarily to deflect and collect oil

• Used on water or just below it

• Booms needs constant attention

• Great amount of manpower is needed

• collecting - cleaning - transporting - disposing - burning

• Burning is very effective - Dangerous to marine life

• Effects of burning are better then having an oil spill in the water

• Dispersants

• Used to disperse the oil in great amounts of water and break up oil slicks

• Dispersants help to keep oil off beaches and away from marshes

• On the Shore

• Chemical Cleaning (e.g. Corexit)

• Difficulty collecting the chemical (not very successful)

• Hot Water and High Pressure

• One of the most common clean-up tactics

• Became standard shoreline treatment

• Kills off much of the life on the shoreline

• Responders must take into consideration that any damage from the treatment is acceptable based on the potential threat of oil

• Manual Treatment

• Used where there was only a little amount of oil

• Manual treatments to pick up oil (shovels, rakes, absorbent material, hands)

• Mechanical Treatment

• Use of machines to remove oil

• Front-end loaders, tractors, and other mechanical units

• Overall - the effects of the machines are worse than that of the oil

• Biological Treatment

• Bioremediation - in situ

• Oil degradation by oil-degrading microorganisms

• Addition of nutrients (fertilizer) to increase microbial growth

• Bioremediation is especially effective to "polish" contaminated site

• Lessons learned - Prevention

  • Ship Design - cost is a concern, but worth the effort and cost over time

  • Double Hull Ships

    • Leak Detection and Tank Overfill Devices

    • Pressure monitors

  • Transportation

    • Tanker tug - Escort Requirements

      • only mandatory regulation

  • Restricted Areas

  • Training and Certification

Lecture 6: Responses of a Marine Microbial Community to Petroleum Hydrocarbon Exposure

• Gaytha A. Langlois, Ph.D.

• Condylostoma sp. - an oil-tolerant marine ciliate

• Role of Protozoa in Aquatic Food Chains

• Bacteria and protozoa may account for 50% of benthic respiration

• Protozoa show diverse patterns of interspecies interactions

• Elaborate predator/prey relationships may be altered by perturbations

• Effects of Land Use on Island Ecosystems

• Greater human activity may result in increased contact with mainland species

• Increased development may bring pollution and/or change evolutionary dynamics

• Pollution events such as oil spills may alter biotic communities significantly

• Leaking underground storage tanks also produce long-lasting impacts

• Overview - Oil Contamination Study on Prudence Island

• Background Information

• Prudence Island (“Chibacuwese”) located in Narragansett Bay - purchased in 1637

• South end of island is protected from further development; part of the National Estuarine Sanctuary Program

• Samples taken at T-wharf (41o34’53”N, 71o19’18”W)

• U.S. Navy fuel depot site, resulting in fuel tank leakage and a subsequent bioremediation project

• by the Army Corps of Engineers (completed in 2001)

• Prudence Island Site

• Overview - Oil Contamination Study (continued)

• Description of Observations

• Samples taken from 2 sandy beaches near bioremediation area (1999-Present)

• Samples taken from top 1 cm. sediment

• Physical parameters recorded (temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen)

• Hydrocarbon analysis conducted 2000-2001

• Phase Contrast Microscopy (live observations of protists and microalgae)

• Hypotheses

• Petroleum HCNs will be similar to compounds found in the bioremediation area

• Volatile organic compounds will be high as a result of biosparging technique

• Oiled communities will resemble those found in earlier mesocosm studies

• Mesocosm Studies at MERL

• MERL (Marine Ecosystems Research Laboratory), Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island

• 3-year study of the effects of petroleum hydrocarbons on estuarine/marine ecosystems

• General Findings from Studies at the Prudence Island Site

• Oil/gasoline residues are visible in the intertidal zone

• Petroleum HCNs found in intertidal zone are similar to profiles for nearby monitoring wells in bioremediation area

• VOCs are present in intertidal samples (BTEX profile), indicating presence of residues of gasoline

• Changes in Biotic Community

• Microbial communities are similar to those found in other oil contaminated sites (emergence of large, diatom-eating ciliates; reduced numbers in selected microinvertebrate populations; high numbers of diatoms)

• Patterns are similar to those found in previous MERL studies and elsewhere

• Oiled microbial communities are characterized by different species groupings, and show

• altered community structure and trophic dynamics

• Studies are ongoing; database will remain accessible via a Web Site (including previous field and mesocosm studies)

• Figure 1: Changes in Populations in Control & Oiled Marine Microbial Communities

• (see Handout)

• Table II. Comparison of Indicator Species in Control & Oiled Habitats

• (see Handout)

• Summary

• Community responses to petroleum contamination are complex

• Restructured communities may survive, but are not necessarily aligned with the natural food web

• More research is needed

• Check on ongoing results at http://web.bryant/~langlois/islands

Reading

• RHHGB, Chap. 24, Selected Readings

Lecture Notes

• Challenges to Policy Makers

• Complexities of the ecosystems

• Insufficient data and findings about natural habitats

• Multiple users, each with a distinct set of values and preferences (boating, fishing, residency, hospitality industry, land development, scientists, elected officials, transportation, etc.)

• Difficulty of being fair and equitable

• Curbing fish harvesting causes economic harm to fishing industry

• Limiting land use reduces profit to be gained by landowners

• How to share technical information in a useful way (scientific reports being used by policy makers)

• Coasts vary in different geographic regions (see land forms on next slide)

• Need nationwide guidelines with some regional flexibility

• Need broad input from stakeholders in the preparation of new laws and regulations

• International Agreements

• Mostly focused on continental shelf resources

• Conflicts of interest and concern over accessibility, security, and wealth

• Emphasis on regulating pollution prevention, containment, and cleanup standards

• OFFSHORE CALIFORNIA JURISDICTIONAL AREAS

• International Maritime Organization (IMO)

• Technical agency of the United Nations

• Responsible for maintaining standards and conditions relating to ship operations

• in near shore and continental shelf waters

• Promotion of maritime safety for the protection of the marine environment

• Long-term plans to minimize global oceanic pollution through regulations and sharing technical information

• Replaced the old "customary laws of the sea" first set up in the 19th century

• IMO was set up in 1959, and has conducted about 30 "conventions" regulating international maritime activities

• United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (LOS)

• Umbrella convention that addresses the allocation of ocean resources, nation by nation, and all areas of marine pollution

• Provided for a more efficient regulatory system

• Convention was signed by 119 coastal nations in 1984 (U.S., U.K. and West Germany would not sign)

• Convention for Prevention of Marine Pollution

• Implemented in 1975; U.S. signed

• Deals with global ocean dumping Prohibits dumping of radioactive waste, industrial wastes, oil,

• and other wastes deemed toxic, persistent and bioaccumulative

• Aimed at wastes originated on shore

• Convention for Prevention of Pollution from Ships-MARPOL

• Implemented in 1983; updated in 1992

• Regulates all forms of pollution from ships, except dumping (controls waste from operation of ships)

• MARPOL was updated in 1992, following the spill of the EXXON Valdez

• U.S. Navy is exempted from many of the regulations

• Other International Organizations

• UNEP

• United Nations Environmental Program

• UNCTAD

• U.N. Conference on Trade & Development

• OECD

• U.N. Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development

• Other International Organizations (continued)

• WHO

• World Health Organization

• World Bank

• Most of these organizations have focused on drafting good programs for ocean protection and management

• Most are weak in enforcement

• Coast Parallel Zones

• Established by coastal countries and international organizations

• Territorial Waters

• Innermost zone (12 nautical miles wide)

• Established by the U.S. LOS Convention III

• Country has sovereign rights to economic resources, sea, and airspace

• Foreign vessels have right of "innocent" passage, air space by permission

• U.S. government gives coastal states jurisdictional rights out to 3 miles (CZMA)

• Federal jurisdiction from 4-12 miles

• Contiguous Zone

• Originally established a maximum of 24 nautical miles from a coastal baseline

• Country may exercise control needed to prevent infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration,

• or sanitary laws and regulations

• 200 mile limits were developed in the 1950s to 1980s (fishing rights and seabed mineral resources)

• Countries set up Exclusive Fishing Zones (EFZ) and Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ)

• 1983 - President Reagan proclaimed a 200 mile EEZ for the U.S.

• High Seas

• Outermost zone (all waters outside established EEZs and EFZs

• No state can lay claim to sovereignty to the High Seas, and aggressive actions against

• another state's vessels are prohibited here

• U.N. International Sea-Bed Authority has jurisdiction over mineral resources

• U.S. Federal Agencies

• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

• Implements U.S. coastal zone management

• Science for marine solutions

• Studies of wetlands

• Mapping of watershed and habitat change

• Environmental satellite system called Coast Watch (tracks endangered sea turtles)

• Prepares nautical and geodetic surveys of coastal areas

• Administers a grant program for marine research

• Works with states in implementing their coastal zone management programs

• Manages National Marine Sanctuary Program

• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (U.S. Department of Defense)

• COE conducts applied research and development related to navigable waterways, harbors, and coastal protection

• Involved in all phases of civil works projects, from design to construction

• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers provides technical assistance and funds projects

• Involved in cleanup of coastal areas contaminated by military activity (e.g., Prudence Island in Narragansett Bay)

• Oversees harbor dredging, coastal erosion prevention, inlet stabilization, jetties, groins, seawalls, restorations

• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers also administers laws and issues permits for construction within navigable waterways, and limits discharge of material into these waterways

• Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

• Principle agency to deal with riverine and coastal flooding in the U.S.

• Provides disaster relief to affected communities and states

• U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)

• Funds scientific studies in the coastal zone

• Contaminant research

• Investigations into sea level change

• Regulates discharge of coastal pollution, disposal of dredged material

• Ultimate authority over the Corps of Engineers regarding dredging activities (Clean Water Act, Section 404)

• Creates emission standards for airborne pollutants that might enter the hydrologic cycle

• National Park Service (NPS)

• Owns and operate holdings along the nation�s coastlines

• Manage coastal barriers, shorelines, estuarine wetlands, and water bodies with migrating fish

• NPS also manages National Seashores and National Lakeshores

• Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS)

• Also operates coastal preserves, including coastal barriers, shorelines, estuarine wetlands, and water bodies with migrating fish and birds

• FWS manages the National Wildlife Refuge Program

• Monitors endangered species

• National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)

• Focus on marine life resources, including conservation of fisheries and marine mammals

• Oldest conservation organization (125 years of research, conservation, and management in 1996)

• U.S. Coast Guard

• (Patrolling coastal waters)

• U.S. Geological Survey (mapping)

• U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service

• (erosion prevention, good land use practices)

• National Science Foundation

• (major funding of scientific research)

• Top of Page

• Federal Legislation

• Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA)

• Passed in 1972 (signed by President Nixon)

• Administered by NOAA

• Provided incentives to states to set up coastal zone management plans (federal grants for implementation)

• Coastal states border the Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic Oceans, Gulf of Mexico, Long Island Sound, or the Great Lakes

• Most coastal states now have a CZM plan

• Consistency Provisions of CZMA

• Federal programs must be consistent with the state's CZM plan

• Gave states some control over federal activities

• Valuable in influencing continuental shelf oil and gas development leases

• Allowed for state oversight of federal highway, airport, military and flood control projects

• Elements of a Coastal Zone Management Plan

• Programs to help protect wetlands, lagoons, reefs, and other coastal habitats

• Minimize property damage from coastal hazards

• Improve recreational use of the coast

• Encourage intergovernmental cooperation through standardization of policies

• CZMA

• Evolving law (reauthorized several times)

• 1990 Reauthorization

• Coastal Zone Enhancement Grants Program

• Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control Prgram

• CZMA has been a highly successful federal program

• Heightened awareness and creative solutions for coastal threats

• Coastal Barriers Resources Act (CoBRA)

• Passed in 1982

• Established the Coastal Barrier Island Resources System, administered by the National Park Service

• Prohibits federal expenditures in undeveloped coastal barriers, including application of National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP)

• Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA)

• Passed in 1972 to set up a system of marine sanctuaries, administered by NOAA

• Marine Mammal Protection Act

• Passed in 1972, to set up a permit system for taking marine mammals

• Designed to protect dolphins and porpoises from inadvertent capture in fishing nets

• National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP)

• Designed to provide reasonably priced insurance in flood hazard areas

• Intended to limit unwise development in flood plains (both riverine and coastal)

• Reduce federal monies for flood control

• Indirectly encouraged coastal development (national insurance cheaper than private)

• Flood Disaster Protection Act

• Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act

• Endangered Species Act (ESA)

• Selected State Agencies

• Some Goals for State Agenies

• Public access to shorelines

• Conservation of natural resources

• Coordination with federal agencies

• Streamlining governmental procedures

• Public participation in coastal decision making process

• Priority to coastal dependent uses

• Florida

• (entire state is a coastal zone)

• Florida Coastal Management Program

• 27 state laws

• Administered by Department of Environmental Regulation (Office of Coastal Management)

• Assistance from Governor�s Office of Planning and Budget

• Ongoing operations shared with Dept. of Natural Resources and Dept. of Community Affairs

• Selected State Agencies (continued)

• California

• California Coastal Act passed in 1976

• Conserve the states 1,100 mile coastline

• Coastline Initiative

• Balancing aesthetic preservation, protection of coastal agriculture, wildlife habitat protection, increased public access, energy development, and control of urban sprawl

• California Coastal Management Program

• San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission

• California Coastal Commission (rest of coast excluding San Francisco Bay)

• Coastal Zone landward from Mean High Tide to 1000 yards inland (may reach inland 5 miles),

• to seaward at the limit of territorial waters

• California Coastal Management Program

• Local governments (15 counties and 54 cities) have a Local Coastal Program

• California State Coastal Conservancy acquires land to restore, protect and manage the coast

• Selected State Agencies (continued)

• Rhode Island

• Coastal Resources Management Council

• Politically appointed council that oversees the Rhode Island Coastal Zone Management Plan

• Coastal Resources Center

• Scientific studies of coastal resources

• Staff assistance to the CRMC

• Associated with the University of Rhode Island

• CRMC activities

• Administer permits for alteration and development in coastal zone

• Funding for resource protection and restoration programs

• Educational programs for schools and universities

• Coordinates Special Area Management Plans (SAMP)

• Summary

• Coastal programs are well developed and usually strongly endorsed by citizens and policy makers

• Coastal region is seen as a multiple use resource (fisheries, energy, habitat, recreation, transportation, etc.)

• Coastal programs must encourage broad public participation

Reading

• Beatley, et al., Chap. 9,10

Assignments

• Web Site Due - Ready for Posting

Lecture Notes

• Commercial Opportunities

• Recreation Uses

• Mining & Mineral Extraction

• Harbor & Marina Development

• Transportation - Shipping/Tranport

• Marine-Related Industries

• Energy Production