2/27: A brief history of language learning

Since humans first learned to use speech as communication, we have been learning languages within our own communities and families as infants, in order to participate in those groups. But when did we begin to implement the kind of organized foreign language education we see at Brown, high school, or in online courses? This week's article will present a brief history of language learning, leading up to the experience we have today at Brown.

Language learning is an ancient tradition. Yet, examining its history, we can see second language learning is almost always intertwined with the history of empire. In the Akkadian Empire, for example, bilingualism between Akkadian and Sumerian was widespread. And in ancient Rome, educated Romans learned Greek for intellectual and scholastic purposes by memorizing Greek passages and vocabulary lists and studying bilingual texts. Meanwhile, Greek speakers living under the Roman empire learned to speak the Latin of their Roman rulers. These two reasons for learning another language—for intellectual study, or to participate in the society of empire—were probably the most common motivations for language learning for centuries. Continuing  through the 16th century, for example, Latin was still considered the language of scholarly work, and academics studied and produced new works in Latin. 

As the world became more connected through both empire and trade in the 15th through 18th centuries, scholars began to purposefully learn the languages of nations and cultures distant from their own—for the dual purposes of conducting scientific research and extending imperial hegemony. This type of language learning often happened via immersion in a foreign society, often learning from a (possibly enslaved) native speaker or translator. Still, the attitude of empire held that the language of that empire, whether English, French, Spanish, or something else, was the highest standard. The language-learning students back in Europe were often wealthy and highly educated, and the purpose of their learning was mostly to read, rather than to interact with native speakers. Many scholars abroad simply used a translator rather than attempting to learn a second language. 

This attitude of imperial linguistic superiority shaped language learning or more ways than one. In the United States, for example, Native American children were forced by government policy into boarding schools where they were only allowed to speak English, and were beaten for speaking their native languages. Language learning in this context, then, became a type of violence inflicted by the state. 

In the late 19th and 20th centuries, psychology, linguistic, and education studies gave rise to the study of language learning pedagogy. Scholars articulated formal methods for teaching language learning. One of these, the Berlitz method—in which the language class is taught completely in the target language from day one—was the basis of a school dedicated entirely to language learning, which opened here in Providence in 1878. These more abstract theories of language learning, from Chomsky's universal grammar to Krashen's monitor model, all offer interesting interpretations about how the human mind works—but how helpful are they with the day-to-day troubles of learning a second language? 

Today, formal language learning is part of almost any secondary school education. Schools and education programs exist for the sole purpose of teaching people to teach languages. But to say there is an even playing field for language students worldwide would be a mistake: The demands of empire and hegemonic power still come into play. Some learners have the luxury of forgetting all about the language they studied in secondary school; some have to use it every day.

From this brief survey of language learning (emphasis on brief, because there are certainly many other stories and perspectives to share), we can see that language learning has almost always been intertwined with the history of power. Language has been a tool of empire, as much as academia and science were intimately connected with empire and globalization. At the same time, the mainstream history available through the internet and public education often leaves out more nuanced and complex sides of the story. As I mentioned, language learning most likely has a plethora of further histories that are missing documentation or scholarly attention. Learning more about how language learning has been used throughout history will allow us all to fully appreciate the context and importance of our learning as students at Brown today.