• General functions of the nervous system

  • • • Describe the general functions of the nervous system.

•  Organization of the nervous system

  • • • • Compare and contrast the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) with respect to structure and function.

        • Compare and contrast the somatic motor and autonomic motor divisions of the nervous system.

        • Compare and contrast the somatic sensory and visceral sensory divisions of the nervous system.

•  General anatomy of the nervous system

  • • • • Describe the composition and arrangement of the gray and white matter in the CNS.

        • Compare and contrast the structure and location of a tract and nerve. 

        •   Protective roles of cranial bones and vertebral column, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

        • Describe how the cranial bones and the vertebral column protect the CNS.

        • Identify the layers of the meninges and describe their anatomical and functional relationships to the CNS (brain and spinal cord).

        • Compare and contrast the structure of the dura mater surrounding the brain and the spinal cord.

        • Describe the general functions of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

        • Describe the production, flow, and reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), from its origin in the ventricles to its eventual reabsorption into the dural venous sinuses.

•   Neurons 

  • • • • Identify and describe the major components of a typical neuron (e.g., cell body, nucleus, nucleolus, chromatophilic substance [Nissl bodies], axon hillock, dendrites, and axon) and indicate which parts receive input signals and which parts transmit output signals.

        • Compare and contrast the three structural types of neurons (i.e., unipolar [pseudounipolar], bipolar, and multipolar) with respect to their structure, location, and function.

•   Neuroglial (glial) cells

  • • • Describe the structure, location, and function of each of the six types of neuroglial (glial) cells. 

•  Neurophysiology

  • • • • Describe the physiological basis of the resting membrane potential (RMP) in a neuron including the ion channels involved, the relative ion concentrations, and the electrochemical gradient.

        • Describe the role of the sodium-potassium ATPase pump in maintaining the resting membrane potential.

        • Define and describe depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization, and threshold.

        • Compare and contrast graded potentials and action potentials, with particular attention to their locations in the neuron and the ions and ion channels involved in each.

• 8.  Neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and synaptic transmission

  • • • • Define a synapse, and explain the difference between an electrical synapse and a chemical synapse.

        • Describe the structures involved in a typical chemical synapse (e.g., axon terminal [synaptic knob], voltage-gated calcium channels, synaptic vesicles of presynaptic cell, synaptic cleft, neurotransmitter receptors of the postsynaptic cell).

        • Describe the events of synaptic transmission in proper chronological order from the release of neurotransmitter by synaptic vesicles to the effect of the neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell.

        • List the most common excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter(s) used in the nervous system

•  Structural and functional organization of the brain

  • • • Identify and define the general terms gyrus, sulcus, and fissure.

      • Identify and describe the four major parts of the adult brain (i.e., cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum).

      • Identify and describe the ventricular system components.

      • Describe the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and its significance.

    • For the cerebrum:

      • Identify and describe the cerebral hemispheres and the five lobes of each (i.e., frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, insula).

      • Identify and describe the major landmarks of the cerebrum (e.g., longitudinal fissure, lateral sulcus [fissure], central sulcus, transverse fissure, precentral gyrus, postcentral gyrus).

      • Identify and describe the three major cerebral regions (i.e., cortex, white matter, cerebral nuclei [basal nuclei]).

      •  Identify and describe the primary functional cortical areas  of the cerebrum (e.g., primary motor cortex, primary somatosensory cortex, primary auditory cortex, primary visual cortex, primary olfactory cortex, primary gustatory cortex).

• • • For the diencephalon:

      • Name the major components of the diencephalon.

      •  Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the thalamus.

      •  Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the hypothalamus, including its relationship to the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system.

      •   Describe and identify the epithalamus, including the pineal gland and its function.

    • For the brainstem:

      •  Name the three subdivisions of the brainstem.

      •  Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the midbrain (mesencephalon), including the cerebral peduncles, superior colliculi, and inferior colliculi.

      •  Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the pons.

      •  Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the medulla oblongata (medulla)

    •  For the cerebellum:

      •  Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the cerebellum.

      •  Identify and describe the cerebellar hemispheres, vermis, arbor vitae (cerebellar white matter), cerebellar peduncles, and cerebellar cortex (folia, cerebellar gray matter).

•  11.  Cranial nerves

  • • • List and identify the cranial nerves by name and number.

      • Describe the major functions of each cranial nerve and identify each cranial nerve as predominantly sensory, motor, or mixed (i.e., sensory and motor).

      • List the cranial nerves that have parasympathetic (ANS) components.

•  Reflexes and their roles in nervous system function

  • • • 1. Define the term reflex.

      • 2. Describe reflex responses in terms of the major structural and functional components of a reflex arc.

• Structure and function of sensory and motor pathways

  • • • 1. Describe the locations and functions of the first-, second- and third-order neurons in a sensory pathway.

      • 2. Describe the locations and functions of the upper and lower motor neurons in a motor pathway.

•  Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

  • • • Compare and contrast the autonomic nervous system (ANS) to the somatic nervous system (SNS) with respect to site of origination, number of neurons involved in the pathway, effectors, receptors, and neurotransmitters. 

•  Application of homeostatic mechanisms

  • • • Explain the role of the nervous system in the maintenance of homeostasis and give examples of how the nervous system interacts with other body systems to accomplish this.

•   Predictions related to disruption of homeostasis

  • • • Given a factor or situation (e.g., a demyelinating disease), predict the changes that could occur in the nervous system and the consequences of those changes (i.e., given a cause, state a possible effect).

      • *Given a disruption in the structure or function of the nervous system (e.g., decreased neurotransmitter release), predict the possible factors or situations that might have caused that disruption (i.e., given an effect, predict the possible causes).

1.  General functions of the endocrine system

Describe the major functions of the endocrine system.

Define the terms hormone, endocrine gland, endocrine tissue (organ), and target cell.

Compare and contrast how the nervous and endocrine systems control body functions, the anatomical pathways by which the signals reach their targets, what determines the target of the pathway, the speed of the target response(s), the duration of the response, and how signal intensity is coded.

2.  Chemical classification of hormones and mechanism of hormone actions at receptors

List the three major chemical classes of hormones (i.e., steroid, peptide, amino acid-derived [amine]) found in the human body.

Compare and contrast how steroid and peptide hormones are produced and stored in the endocrine cell, released from the endocrine cell, and  transported in the blood.

3.   Compare and contrast the locations of target cell receptors for steroid and peptide hormones.

     4.   Compare and contrast the mechanisms of action of plasma membrane hormone receptors and intracellular hormone receptors, including the speed of the response.

3.  Control of hormone secretion

Describe the various signals that initiate hormone production and secretion (e.g., monitored variables, direct innervation, neurohormones, other hormones).

Describe a simple endocrine pathway in which the response is the negative feedback signal (e.g., parathyroid hormone, insulin).

4.  Endocrine control by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland

Describe the locations and the anatomical relationships of the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and posterior pituitary

Compare and contrast negative feedback for hypothalamic-anterior pituitary-peripheral endocrine gland pathways to negative feedback for most simple endocrine pathways.

3.   Describe major hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary, their control pathways, and their primary            target(s) and effects.

4.   Explain the role of hypothalamic neurohormones (regulatory hormones) in the release of anterior                  pituitary hormones.

Name the two hormones produced by the hypothalamus that are stored in the posterior pituitary, and the hormones’ primary targets and effects.

Explain the role of the hypothalamus in the release of hormones from the posterior pituitary.

5.  Endocrine structures and their hormones

Describe the anatomy of the thyroid gland, its location, the major hormones secreted, the control pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormones’ primary targets and effects.

     Describe the anatomy of the parathyroid glands, their location, the major hormone secreted, the control             pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormone’s primary targets and effects.

Describe the anatomy of the adrenal cortex, its location, the major hormones secreted, the control pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormones’ primary targets and effects.

     Describe the anatomy of the pancreas, its location, the major hormones secreted, the control pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormones’ primary targets and effects.

Describe the anatomy of the thymus gland, its location, the major hormones secreted, the control pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormones’ primary targets and effects.

        Provide some examples of hormones that are secreted from diffuse endocrine tissues or single endocrine cells.

7.  Hormonal response to stress

     List the hormones released during short-term stress and describe their actions. List the hormones released  during long-term stress and describe their actions.

8.  Application of homeostatic mechanisms

Describe examples of how the endocrine organs interact with other body organs and systems to maintain      homeostasis. 

9.  Predictions related to disruption of homeostasis  (Pick one)

Given a factor or situation (e.g., lack of iodine in the diet), predict the changes that could occur in the endocrine            system and the consequences of those changes (i.e., given a cause, state a possible effect).

   Given a disruption in the structure or function of the endocrine system (e.g., hypothyroidism), predict the possible factors or situations that might have caused that disruption (i.e., given an effect, predict possible causes).

Sensory receptors

• Define sensory receptor.

• Compare and contrast a general sense receptor and a special sense (complex) receptor.

Gross and microscopic anatomy of the eye

1. Identify the tunics of the eye and their major components (e.g., cornea, sclera, iris, ciliary body), and describe the structure and function of each.

2. Identify and describe the anterior and posterior cavities of the eye and their associated humors.

3. Describe the lens and its role in vision.

4. Identify and describe the actions of the extrinsic eye muscles.

5. Identify and describe the accessory eye structures (e.g., conjunctiva and lacrimal apparatus).

Visual pathways

1. Trace the path of light as is passes through the eye to the retina, and describe which structures are responsible for refracting the light rays.

2. Trace the signal pathway from the retina through the optic nerve, optic chiasm, optic tract, and to the various parts of the brain.

3. Explain how the optical system of the eye creates an image on the retina.

4. Describe phototransduction (i.e., how light activates photoreceptors) and explain the process of light and dark adaptation.

5. Compare and contrast the functions and locations of rods and cones.

6. Relate changes in the anatomy of the eye to changes in vision.

Olfaction

1. Identify and describe the composition and location of the olfactory epithelium.

2. Classify olfactory receptor cells based on the type of stimulus (i.e., modality).

3. Explain the process by which odorants activate olfactory receptors.

4. Trace the path of olfaction from the olfactory receptors, to the initiation of an action potential in the olfactory nerves, through the olfactory bulb, the olfactory tract, and to the various parts of the brain.

Gustation

1. Identify and describe the location and structure of taste buds.

2. Classify gustatory receptor cells based on the type of stimulus (i.e., modality).

Auditory pathways

1. Classify the receptor cells for hearing based on the type of stimulus (i.e., modality).

2. Trace the path of sound from the external ear to the inner ear, including where sound is amplified.

Equilibrium

1. Classify the receptor cells for equilibrium based on the type of stimulus (i.e., modality).

2. Compare and contrast static and dynamic equilibrium.

Application of homeostatic mechanisms

1. Explain how the sense organs relate to other body organs and systems to maintain homeostasis.

• PAGE: 87 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

• PAGE: 88 LARGE INTESTINE

• PAGE: 89 SMALL INTESTINE

• PAGE: 90 STOMACH

PAGE 95:  EXTERNAL STRUCTURES OF THE HEART

PAGE 96:  INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF THE HEART

PAGE:  97 STRUCTURES OF THE KIDNEY

PAGE:  98 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

PAGE:  99 FEMALE REPRODUVTIVE SYSTEM

PAGE:  100 OVARIAN CYCLE vs.  UTERINE CYCLE