• General functions of the nervous system

  • • • Describe the general functions of the nervous system.

•  Organization of the nervous system

  • • • • Compare and contrast the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) with respect to structure and function.

        • Compare and contrast the somatic motor and autonomic motor divisions of the nervous system.

        • Compare and contrast the somatic sensory and visceral sensory divisions of the nervous system.

•  General anatomy of the nervous system

  • • • • Describe the composition and arrangement of the gray and white matter in the CNS.

        • Compare and contrast the structure and location of a tract and nerve. 

        •   Protective roles of cranial bones and vertebral column, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

        • Describe how the cranial bones and the vertebral column protect the CNS.

        • Identify the layers of the meninges and describe their anatomical and functional relationships to the CNS (brain and spinal cord).

        • Compare and contrast the structure of the dura mater surrounding the brain and the spinal cord.

        • Describe the general functions of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

        • Describe the production, flow, and reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), from its origin in the ventricles to its eventual reabsorption into the dural venous sinuses.

•   Neurons 

  • • • • Identify and describe the major components of a typical neuron (e.g., cell body, nucleus, nucleolus, chromatophilic substance [Nissl bodies], axon hillock, dendrites, and axon) and indicate which parts receive input signals and which parts transmit output signals.

        • Compare and contrast the three structural types of neurons (i.e., unipolar [pseudounipolar], bipolar, and multipolar) with respect to their structure, location, and function.

•   Neuroglial (glial) cells

  • • • Describe the structure, location, and function of each of the six types of neuroglial (glial) cells. 

•  Neurophysiology

  • • • • Describe the physiological basis of the resting membrane potential (RMP) in a neuron including the ion channels involved, the relative ion concentrations, and the electrochemical gradient.

        • Describe the role of the sodium-potassium ATPase pump in maintaining the resting membrane potential.

        • Define and describe depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization, and threshold.

        • Compare and contrast graded potentials and action potentials, with particular attention to their locations in the neuron and the ions and ion channels involved in each.

• 8.  Neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and synaptic transmission

  • • • • Define a synapse, and explain the difference between an electrical synapse and a chemical synapse.

        • Describe the structures involved in a typical chemical synapse (e.g., axon terminal [synaptic knob], voltage-gated calcium channels, synaptic vesicles of presynaptic cell, synaptic cleft, neurotransmitter receptors of the postsynaptic cell).

        • Describe the events of synaptic transmission in proper chronological order from the release of neurotransmitter by synaptic vesicles to the effect of the neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell.

        • List the most common excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter(s) used in the nervous system

•  Structural and functional organization of the brain

  • • • Identify and define the general terms gyrus, sulcus, and fissure.

      • Identify and describe the four major parts of the adult brain (i.e., cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum).

      • Identify and describe the ventricular system components.

      • Describe the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and its significance.

    • For the cerebrum:

      • Identify and describe the cerebral hemispheres and the five lobes of each (i.e., frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, insula).

      • Identify and describe the major landmarks of the cerebrum (e.g., longitudinal fissure, lateral sulcus [fissure], central sulcus, transverse fissure, precentral gyrus, postcentral gyrus).

      • Identify and describe the three major cerebral regions (i.e., cortex, white matter, cerebral nuclei [basal nuclei]).

      •  Identify and describe the primary functional cortical areas  of the cerebrum (e.g., primary motor cortex, primary somatosensory cortex, primary auditory cortex, primary visual cortex, primary olfactory cortex, primary gustatory cortex).

• • • For the diencephalon:

      • Name the major components of the diencephalon.

      •  Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the thalamus.

      •  Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the hypothalamus, including its relationship to the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system.

      •   Describe and identify the epithalamus, including the pineal gland and its function.

    • For the brainstem:

      •  Name the three subdivisions of the brainstem.

      •  Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the midbrain (mesencephalon), including the cerebral peduncles, superior colliculi, and inferior colliculi.

      •  Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the pons.

      •  Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the medulla oblongata (medulla)

    •  For the cerebellum:

      •  Describe the structure, location, and major functions of the cerebellum.

      •  Identify and describe the cerebellar hemispheres, vermis, arbor vitae (cerebellar white matter), cerebellar peduncles, and cerebellar cortex (folia, cerebellar gray matter).

•  11.  Cranial nerves

  • • • List and identify the cranial nerves by name and number.

      • Describe the major functions of each cranial nerve and identify each cranial nerve as predominantly sensory, motor, or mixed (i.e., sensory and motor).

      • List the cranial nerves that have parasympathetic (ANS) components.

•  Reflexes and their roles in nervous system function

  • • • 1. Define the term reflex.

      • 2. Describe reflex responses in terms of the major structural and functional components of a reflex arc.

• Structure and function of sensory and motor pathways

  • • • 1. Describe the locations and functions of the first-, second- and third-order neurons in a sensory pathway.

      • 2. Describe the locations and functions of the upper and lower motor neurons in a motor pathway.

•  Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

  • • • Compare and contrast the autonomic nervous system (ANS) to the somatic nervous system (SNS) with respect to site of origination, number of neurons involved in the pathway, effectors, receptors, and neurotransmitters. 

•  Application of homeostatic mechanisms

  • • • Explain the role of the nervous system in the maintenance of homeostasis and give examples of how the nervous system interacts with other body systems to accomplish this.

•   Predictions related to disruption of homeostasis

  • • • Given a factor or situation (e.g., a demyelinating disease), predict the changes that could occur in the nervous system and the consequences of those changes (i.e., given a cause, state a possible effect).

      • *Given a disruption in the structure or function of the nervous system (e.g., decreased neurotransmitter release), predict the possible factors or situations that might have caused that disruption (i.e., given an effect, predict the possible causes).

1.  General functions of the endocrine system

Describe the major functions of the endocrine system.

Define the terms hormone, endocrine gland, endocrine tissue (organ), and target cell.

Compare and contrast how the nervous and endocrine systems control body functions, the anatomical pathways by which the signals reach their targets, what determines the target of the pathway, the speed of the target response(s), the duration of the response, and how signal intensity is coded.

2.  Chemical classification of hormones and mechanism of hormone actions at receptors

List the three major chemical classes of hormones (i.e., steroid, peptide, amino acid-derived [amine]) found in the human body.

Compare and contrast how steroid and peptide hormones are produced and stored in the endocrine cell, released from the endocrine cell, and  transported in the blood.

3.   Compare and contrast the locations of target cell receptors for steroid and peptide hormones.

     4.   Compare and contrast the mechanisms of action of plasma membrane hormone receptors and intracellular hormone receptors, including the speed of the response.

3.  Control of hormone secretion

Describe the various signals that initiate hormone production and secretion (e.g., monitored variables, direct innervation, neurohormones, other hormones).

Describe a simple endocrine pathway in which the response is the negative feedback signal (e.g., parathyroid hormone, insulin).

4.  Endocrine control by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland

Describe the locations and the anatomical relationships of the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and posterior pituitary

Compare and contrast negative feedback for hypothalamic-anterior pituitary-peripheral endocrine gland pathways to negative feedback for most simple endocrine pathways.

3.   Describe major hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary, their control pathways, and their primary            target(s) and effects.

4.   Explain the role of hypothalamic neurohormones (regulatory hormones) in the release of anterior                  pituitary hormones.

Name the two hormones produced by the hypothalamus that are stored in the posterior pituitary, and the hormones’ primary targets and effects.

Explain the role of the hypothalamus in the release of hormones from the posterior pituitary.

5.  Endocrine structures and their hormones

Describe the anatomy of the thyroid gland, its location, the major hormones secreted, the control pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormones’ primary targets and effects.

     Describe the anatomy of the parathyroid glands, their location, the major hormone secreted, the control             pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormone’s primary targets and effects.

Describe the anatomy of the adrenal cortex, its location, the major hormones secreted, the control pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormones’ primary targets and effects.

     Describe the anatomy of the pancreas, its location, the major hormones secreted, the control pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormones’ primary targets and effects.

Describe the anatomy of the thymus gland, its location, the major hormones secreted, the control pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormones’ primary targets and effects.

        Provide some examples of hormones that are secreted from diffuse endocrine tissues or single endocrine cells.

7.  Hormonal response to stress

     List the hormones released during short-term stress and describe their actions. List the hormones released  during long-term stress and describe their actions.

8.  Application of homeostatic mechanisms

Describe examples of how the endocrine organs interact with other body organs and systems to maintain      homeostasis. 

9.  Predictions related to disruption of homeostasis  (Pick one)

Given a factor or situation (e.g., lack of iodine in the diet), predict the changes that could occur in the endocrine            system and the consequences of those changes (i.e., given a cause, state a possible effect).

   Given a disruption in the structure or function of the endocrine system (e.g., hypothyroidism), predict the possible factors or situations that might have caused that disruption (i.e., given an effect, predict possible causes).

Sensory receptors

• Define sensory receptor.

• Compare and contrast a general sense receptor and a special sense (complex) receptor.

Gross and microscopic anatomy of the eye

1. Identify the tunics of the eye and their major components (e.g., cornea, sclera, iris, ciliary body), and describe the structure and function of each.

2. Identify and describe the anterior and posterior cavities of the eye and their associated humors.

3. Describe the lens and its role in vision.

4. Identify and describe the actions of the extrinsic eye muscles.

5. Identify and describe the accessory eye structures (e.g., conjunctiva and lacrimal apparatus).

Visual pathways

1. Trace the path of light as is passes through the eye to the retina, and describe which structures are responsible for refracting the light rays.

2. Trace the signal pathway from the retina through the optic nerve, optic chiasm, optic tract, and to the various parts of the brain.

3. Explain how the optical system of the eye creates an image on the retina.

4. Describe phototransduction (i.e., how light activates photoreceptors) and explain the process of light and dark adaptation.

5. Compare and contrast the functions and locations of rods and cones.

6. Relate changes in the anatomy of the eye to changes in vision.

Olfaction

1. Identify and describe the composition and location of the olfactory epithelium.

2. Classify olfactory receptor cells based on the type of stimulus (i.e., modality).

3. Explain the process by which odorants activate olfactory receptors.

4. Trace the path of olfaction from the olfactory receptors, to the initiation of an action potential in the olfactory nerves, through the olfactory bulb, the olfactory tract, and to the various parts of the brain.

Gustation

1. Identify and describe the location and structure of taste buds.

2. Classify gustatory receptor cells based on the type of stimulus (i.e., modality).

Auditory pathways

1. Classify the receptor cells for hearing based on the type of stimulus (i.e., modality).

2. Trace the path of sound from the external ear to the inner ear, including where sound is amplified.

Equilibrium

1. Classify the receptor cells for equilibrium based on the type of stimulus (i.e., modality).

2. Compare and contrast static and dynamic equilibrium.

Application of homeostatic mechanisms

1. Explain how the sense organs relate to other body organs and systems to maintain homeostasis.

1.  Structure and functions of the digestive system

1. Describe the major functions of the digestive system.

2. Explain the differences between the gastrointestinal (GI) tract (alimentary canal) and the accessory digestive organs.

3. Compare and contrast mechanical digestion and chemical digestion, including where they occur in the digestive system.

4. Define peristalsis.

5. Trace the pathway of ingested substances through the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

2.  General gross and microscopic anatomy of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract

1. List and identify the organs that compose the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

2. Identify and describe the gross anatomic and microscopic structure and function of each of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract tunics (layers): mucosa, submucosa, muscularis (muscularis externa), and serosa or adventitia.

3.  Peritoneum and mesenteries

1. Identify and describe the location, structure, and function of the visceral and parietal peritoneum, serous fluid, and the peritoneal cavity.

2. Define mesentery and explain its function.

3. Compare and contrast the locations of the mesenteries (e.g., mesentery proper, mesocolon, lesser omentum, greater omentum).

4. Explain the difference between an intraperitoneal and a retroperitoneal organ.

5. Identify which digestive system organs are intraperitoneal or retroperitoneal.

4.  Oral cavity

1. Identify and describe the boundaries of the oral cavity.

2. Define mastication.

3. Compare and contrast the composition and functions of the hard palate, soft palate, and uvula.

4. Identify and describe the structures (e.g., taste buds, papillae) and the functions of the tongue.

5. Describe the structure and function of teeth.

6. Describe the structure and function of the salivary glands.

7. Describe the composition and functions of saliva.

5.  Anatomy of the pharynx

1. Identify and describe the different regions of the pharynx with respect to the passage of air and/or food.

6.  Gross and microscopic anatomy of the esophagus

1. Identify and describe the gross anatomy of the esophagus, including its location relative to other body structures.

2. Describe the general functions of the esophagus.

3. Describe the anatomic specializations of the esophageal tunics (e.g., composition of the mucosa and muscularis [muscularis externa]) compared to the tunics of the rest of the GI tract.

4. Relate the anatomic specializations of the esophagus to the organ’s functions.

7.  Gross and microscopic anatomy of the stomach

1. Identify and describe the gross anatomy of the stomach, including its location relative to other body structures.

2. Describe the general functions of the stomach.

3. Describe the anatomic specializations of the stomach tunics compared to the tunics of the rest of the GI tract.

4. Relate the anatomic specializations of the stomach tunics (e.g., number of layers of muscle in the muscularis [muscularis externa]) to the organ’s functions.

5. Identify and describe the gastric glands, including their cells (e.g., parietal cells, chief cells).

6. Describe the compositions, locations, and functions of the inferior esophageal (cardiac, lower esophageal) sphincter and the pyloric sphincter.

7. Identify gastric folds (rugae) and discuss their functional significance.

8.  Gross and microscopic anatomy of the small intestine

1. Identify and describe the gross anatomy of the small intestine, including its location relative to other body structures.

2. Describe the general functions of the small intestine.

3. Identify the specific segments of the small intestine (i.e., duodenum, jejunum, ileum), including their relative length.

4. Describe the anatomic specializations of the small intestine tunics (e.g., circular folds [plicae circulares], villi, microvilli) compared to the tunics of the rest of the GI tract.

5. Relate the anatomic specializations of the small intestine tunics (e.g., circular folds [plicae circulares], villi, microvilli) to the organ’s functions.

6. Identify and describe the function of the following small intestine structures: duodenal glands (Brunner glands), intestinal glands (crypts of Lieberkuhn), and Peyer patches (lymphoid [lymphatic] nodules).

9.  Gross and microscopic anatomy of the large intestine, rectum, and anal canal

1. Identify and describe the gross anatomy of the large intestine, rectum and anal canal, including their location relative to other body structures.

2. Identify the specific segments and related flexures of the large intestine.

3. Describe the general functions of the large intestine, rectum, and anal canal.

4. Describe the specializations of the large intestine tunics (e.g., composition of the muscularis [muscularis externa]) compared to the tunics of the rest of the GI tract.

5. Relate the specializations of the large intestine tunics (e.g., composition of the muscularis [muscularis externa]) to the organ’s functions.

6. Compare and contrast the location, composition, and innervation (i.e., somatic versus autonomic) of the internal and external anal sphincters.

10. Gross and microscopic anatomy of the accessory digestive organs

Liver:

1.        Describe the general functions of the liver.

2.        Identify and describe the structure of the liver, including the individual lobes, ligaments (e.g., coronary ligament, falciform ligament, round ligament [ligamentum teres]), and the porta hepatis.

3.        Describe the location of the liver relative to other body structures.

4.        Identify and describe the histological components of the classic hepatic lobule.

Gallbladder:

5.        Identify and describe the structure and functions of the gallbladder.

6.        Describe the location of the gallbladder relative to other body structures.

Pancreas:

7.        Identify and describe the structure and functions of the pancreas.

8.        Describe the location of the pancreas relative to other body structures.

9.        Identify and describe the major histological components of the pancreas (pancreatic acini and pancreatic islets [islets of Langerhans]) and discuss their major functions.

Biliary Apparatus:

10. Describe the major functions of the biliary apparatus.

11. Identify and describe the biliary apparatus components (i.e., left and right hepatic ducts, common hepatic duct, cystic duct, common bile duct, main pancreatic duct, hepatopancreatic ampulla [ampulla of Vater], hepatopancreatic sphincter [sphincter of Oddi], major duodenal papilla).

12. Trace the path of bile and pancreatic juice through the biliary apparatus.

11.  Motility in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract

1.     List the structures involved in deglutition and explain the process of deglutition, including the changes in position of the glottis and larynx that prevent aspiration.

2.     Compare and contrast the following: peristalsis, mixing waves, segmentation, and mass movement.

3.     Explain how volume, chemical composition, and osmolarity of chyme affect motility in the stomach and in the duodenum.

4.     Describe the defecation reflex and how it is affected by somatic and autonomic innervation.

12.  Physiology of digestion

1.     List the enzymes, their sources, their substrates, and their products of chemical digestion (enzymatic hydrolysis).

2.     Identify the locations of chemical digestion of macromolecules (e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, lipids). Define zymogen and describe its importance in chemical digestion.

3.     Describe the functions, production, and regulation of secretion of hydrochloric acid (HCl).

4.     Define emulsification, and explain how and where bile salts facilitate fat digestion.

5.     Describe the role of bacteria (microbiome) in digestion.

13.  Processes of absorption

1.     List the organs and specific structures that facilitate the absorption of nutrients (e.g., monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, monoglycerides).

2.     Explain the transport processes involved in the absorption of various nutrients.

3.     Describe the absorption of minerals (e.g., calcium, iron) and vitamins (e.g., fat-soluble, water-soluble, B12) in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

4.     Describe bile salt recycling.

5.     Describe the process of water absorption in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

14.  Hormonal and neural regulation of digestive processes

1.     Describe the enteric nervous system (ENS) and explain its role in controlling digestive system function.

2.     Compare and contrast sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation effects on the digestive system.

3.     *List the components of a short reflex and a long reflex in the digestive system.

4.     Explain the effects of the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase of digestion on various parts of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

5.     Describe the source, stimuli for release, targets, and actions of gastrointestinal (GI) tract hormones - (e.g., gastrin, cholecystokinin, secretin).

15.  Application of homeostatic mechanisms

1.     Describe mass balance in the digestive system (e.g., fluid intake, digestive secretions, fluid absorption, excretion) and its relationship to body fluid homeostasis.

2.     Explain how the digestive system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis.

16.  Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance

1.     Given a factor or situation (e.g., surgical removal of part of the stomach), predict the changes that could occur in the digestive system and the consequences of those changes (i.e., given a cause, state possible effects).

2.     *Given a disruption in the structure or function of the digestive system (e.g., diarrhea), predict the possible factors or situations that might have created that disruption (i.e., given an effect, predict possible causes).

PAGE 95:  EXTERNAL STRUCTURES OF THE HEART

PAGE 96:  INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF THE HEART

PAGE:  97 STRUCTURES OF THE KIDNEY

PAGE:  98 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

PAGE:  99 FEMALE REPRODUVTIVE SYSTEM

PAGE:  100 OVARIAN CYCLE vs.  UTERINE CYCLE