A&P Curriculum

This unit...

General idea of the body working to maintain homeostasis through different body systems.

Students will know...

1. Vocabulary of appropriate terminology to effectively communicate information related to anatomy and physiology.

2. The principle of homeostasis and the use of feedback loops to control physiological systems in the human body.

3. Synthesize ideas to make a connection between knowledge of anatomy and physiology and real-world situations, including healthy lifestyle decisions and homeostatic imbalances.

Students will be able to...

1. Use anatomical knowledge to predict physiological consequences, and use knowledge of function to predict the features of anatomical structures.

Essential Questions

1. What is the importance of being able to  communicate the location of a wound in anatomical terms?

2. Explain the importance of having the body divided into different regions and quadrants.

3. Why do scientists use anatomical position?

4. What are the systems of the human body and why do they interrelate?

Anatomical position:

1.  Describe a person in anatomical position.

2.  Describe how to use the terms right and left in anatomical reference.  

Body planes & sections:

1.  Identify the various planes in which a body might be dissected.

2.  Describe the appearance of a body presented along various planes.

Body cavities & regions:

1.  Describe the location of the body cavities and identify the major organs found in each cavity.

2.  List and describe the location of the major anatomical regions of the body.

3.  Describe the location of the four abdominopelvic quadrants and the nine abdominopelvic regions and list the major organs located in each.

Directional terms:

1.  List and define the major directional terms used in anatomy.

2.  Describe the location of body structures, using appropriate directional terminology.

Basic terminology:

1.  Define the terms anatomy and physiology.

2.  Give specific examples to show the interrelationship between anatomy and physiology. 

3.  Describe the location of structures of the body, using basic regional and systemic terminology.

Levels of organization:

1.  Describe, in order from simplest to most complex, the major levels of organization in the human organism.

2.  Give an example of each level of organization.

Survey of body systems:

1.  List the organ systems of the human body and their major components.

2.  Describe the major functions of each organ system.

Definition

1. Define homeostasis.

2. Define the following terms as they relate to homeostasis: setpoint, variable, receptor

(sensor), effector (target), and control (integrating) center.

3. List the main physiological variables for which the body attempts to maintain

homeostasis.

4. Explain the difference between a regulated variable and a controlled variable.

5. Define the law of mass balance and relate it to body homeostasis.

6. Compare and contrast equilibrium and steady-state.

General types of homeostatic mechanisms

1. List the steps in a response pathway, starting with the stimulus and ending with the response.

2. List the steps in a feedback mechanism (loop) and explain the function of each step.

3. Compare and contrast positive and negative feedback in terms of the relationship between stimulus and response, and describe examples of each.

4. Explain why negative feedback is the most common mechanism used to maintain homeostasis.

5. Describe a feedforward (anticipatory) response, how it helps maintain homeostasis, and an example of a feedforward response.

Homeostasis and Control Pathways (Additional detail in Module B, Cell-Cell Communication & Control Systems)

Homeostasis

• Define homeostasis and explain its importance for body function.

• Compare and contrast equilibrium and steady state, then explain and list an example of how a system can be a steady-state disequilibrium.

• Explain the roles of the following in maintaining body homeostasis: setpoint and acceptable range, regulated (monitored) variable, controlled variable, negative feedback.

• List physiological variables for which the body attempts to maintain homeostasis (e.g., plasma glucose concentration) and variables that are not subject to homeostatic regulation (e.g., plasma cholesterol concentration), then explain why each variable belongs in the given category.

• Compare a regulated and controlled variable by describing a generalized model of a process subject to homeostatic regulation (e.g., heart rate is controlled to regulate blood pressure. Sensors exist for blood pressure, but no sensors specifically monitor heart rate.).

• Explain how the principle of mass balance and homeostasis are interrelated and describe an example in the body.

• Describe physiological processes or parameters that cycle in a predictable fashion over a period of time (e.g., daily, monthly).

Control Pathways

• List the steps of a physiological reflex from stimulus to response using a control system model (i.e., input, control center, output)

• Compare and contrast negative feedback, positive feedback, and feedforward in terms of the relationship between stimulus and response and describe examples of each.

• Predict outcome(s) when a response pathway is altered or disrupted.

• Given a change in the response of a pathway, predict which component(s) of the pathway may have been altered or disrupted.

• Apply knowledge of the steps of a physiological reflex to the components of a given example, then determine if the reflex is associated with the maintenance of homeostasis

Atoms and Molecules

1. Compare and contrast the terms atoms, elements, molecules, and compounds.

2. Describe the charge, mass, and relative location of electrons, protons, and neutrons in an atom.

3. Relate the number of electrons in an electron shell to the atom’s chemical stability and its ability to form chemical bonds.

4. Compare and contrast the terms ion, electrolyte, free radical, isotope, and radioisotope.

5. Explain how ions and isotopes are produced by changing the relative number of specific subatomic particles, using one element as an example.

6. Distinguish among the terms atomic number, mass number, and atomic weight.

Chemical Bonding

1. Explain the mechanism of each type of chemical bond and provide biologically significant examples of each: covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds.

2. Compare and contrast nonpolar covalent and polar covalent bonds.

3. List the following types of bonds in order by relative strength: nonpolar covalent, polar covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds.

Inorganic compounds and solutions

1. Describe the physiologically important properties of water.

2. Compare and contrast the terms solution, solute, solvent, colloid suspension, and emulsion.

3. Define the terms salt, pH, acid, base, and buffer.

4. State the pH values for acidic, neutral, and alkaline (basic) solutions.

Organic Compounds

1. Define the term organic molecule.

2. Explain the relationship between monomers and polymers.

3. Define and provide examples of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions.

4. Compare and contrast the general molecular structure of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids using chemical formulas.

5. Describe the building blocks of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, and explain how these building blocks combine with themselves or other molecules to create complex molecules in each class, providing specific examples.

6. Describe the four levels of protein structure and the importance of protein shape for function.

7. Define enzyme and describe factors that affect enzyme activity.

Energy transfer using ATP

1. Explain the role of ATP in the cell.

2. Describe the generalized reversible reaction for ATP synthesis and the release of energy from ATP.

General organization of a cell

1. Describe the three main parts of a cell (plasma [cell] membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus), and explain the general functions of each part.

2. Compare and contrast cytoplasm and cytosol.

3. Describe the structure and roles of the cytoskeleton.

Cellular membrane structure and function

1. Describe the chemical composition, general structure (i.e., fluid mosaic model), and properties of all cellular membranes.

2. Describe the structure of the plasma (cell) membrane, including its composition and arrangement of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates.

3. Describe the functions of different plasma membrane proteins (e.g., structural proteins, receptor proteins, channels).

Mechanisms for movement of materials across plasma (cell) membranes

1. Compare and contrast intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid with respect to chemical composition and location.

2. Compare and contrast simple diffusion across membranes and facilitated diffusion in respect to their mechanisms, the type of material being moved, and the energy source for the movement.

3. Compare and contrast facilitated diffusion, primary active transport, and secondary active transport in respect to their mechanisms, the type of material being moved, and the energy source for the movement.

4. Define osmosis and explain how it differs from simple diffusion across membranes.

5. Compare and contrast osmolarity and tonicity of solutions.

6. Describe the effects of hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic solutions on cells.

7. Compare and contrast exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis, and pinocytosis in respect to their mechanisms, the direction of movement, the type of material being moved, and the energy source for the movement.

Membrane potential

1. Define resting membrane potential (RMP).

2. Explain the role of ion concentration gradients and membrane permeability to ions in establishing a membrane potential.

3. Explain how sodium-potassium ATPase pumps help maintain the resting membrane potential.

Organelles

1. Define the term organelle.

2. Describe the structure and function of the various cellular organelles.

Protein synthesis

1. Define the terms genetic code, transcription, and translation.

2. Explain the process of RNA synthesis.

3. Explain the roles of tRNA, mRNA, and rRNA in protein synthesis.

Cellular respiration (introduction)

1. Define the term cellular respiration.

2. Explain the process by which glucose is converted through metabolic pathways to carbon dioxide and water (e.g., glycolysis, citric acid [Krebs or tricarboxylic acid] cycle, electron transport chain).

Cell cycle

1. Describe the general phases (e.g., G phases, S phase, cellular division) of the cell cycle.

2. Compare and contrast somatic cell division (mitosis) and reproductive cell division (meiosis).

3. Describe DNA replication.

4. Compare and contrast chromatin, chromosomes, and chromatids.

5. Describe the events that take place during mitosis and cytokinesis.

MODULE D: Histology

1.  Overview of histology and tissue types

1. Define the term histology.

2. List the four major tissue types.

3. Compare and contrast the general features of the four major tissue types.

2.  Microscopic anatomy, location, and functional roles of epithelial tissue

1. Describe the structural characteristics common to all types of epithelia.

2. Classify different types of epithelial tissues based on structural characteristics.

3. Describe the microscopic anatomy, location, and function of each epithelial tissue type.

4. Identify examples of each type of epithelial tissue.

5. Compare and contrast exocrine and endocrine glands, structurally and functionally.

6. Compare and contrast the different kinds of exocrine glands based on structure, method of secretion, and locations in the body.

3.  Microscopic anatomy, location, and functional roles of connective tissue

1. Describe mesenchyme and explain its role in the classification of all types of connective tissue.

2. Describe the structural characteristics common to all types of connective tissue.

3. Classify different types of connective tissue based on their structural characteristics, functions, and locations in the body.

4. Identify examples of each type of connective tissue.

4.  Microscopic anatomy, location, and functional roles of muscle tissue

1. Describe the structural characteristics common to all types of muscle tissue.

2. Classify different types of muscle tissue based on structural characteristics, functions, and locations in the body.

3. Identify examples of each type of muscle tissue.

5.  Microscopic anatomy, location, and functional roles of nervous tissue

1. Recognize the cells of nervous tissue.

2. Compare and contrast neurons and glial cells with respect to cell structure and function.

6.  Membranes (mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial)

1. Describe the structure and function of mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial membranes.

2. Describe locations in the body where each type of membrane can be found.

7.  Intercellular connections (cell junctions)

1. Compare and contrast the types of  intercellular connections (cell junctions) with respect to structure and function.

8.  Tissue growth, modification, and repair

1. Define the following terms: hypertrophy, hyperplasia, atrophy, necrosis, apoptosis, metaplasia, regeneration, fibrosis, and dysplasia.

2. Describe tissue repair following an injury.

1.   General composition and functions of the integumentary system and the subcutaneous layer (hypodermis or superficial fascia)

1. List the components of the integumentary system.

2. Describe the general functions of the integumentary system and the subcutaneous layer.

2.   Gross and microscopic anatomy of the integument and subcutaneous layer (hypodermis or superficial fascia)

1. Identify and describe the tissue type making up the epidermis.

2. Identify and describe the layers of the epidermis, indicating which are found in thin skin and which are found in thick skin.

3. Compare and contrast thin and thick skin with respect to location and function.

4. Describe the processes of growth and keratinization of the epidermis.

5. Identify and describe the dermis and its layers, including the tissue types making up each dermal layer.

6. Identify and describe the subcutaneous layer, including the tissue types.

7. Describe the factors that contribute to skin color.

3.   Roles of specific tissue layers of skin and the subcutaneous layer (hypodermis or superficial fascia)

1. Describe the functions of the epidermis.

2. Explain how each of the five layers, as well as each of the following cell types and substances, contributes to the functions of the epidermis: stem cells of the stratum basale, keratinocytes, melanocytes, epidermal dendritic (Langerhans) cells, tactile (Merkel) cells and discs, keratin, and extracellular lipids.

3. Describe the functions of the dermis, including the specific function of each dermal layer.

4. Describe the functions of the subcutaneous layer.

5. Describe the thermoregulatory role played by adipose tissue in the subcutaneous layer.

4.  Structure and function of epidermal derivatives (accessory structures of the integument)

1. List the epidermal derivatives of the integument.

2. Describe the structure and function of hair.

3. Describe the structure and function of nails.

4. Describe the structure and function of exocrine glands of the integumentary system.

5. Describe the growth cycles of hair follicles and the growth of hair.

6. Explain the physiological significance of the presence or absence of sebaceous (oil) glands, sudoriferous (sweat) glands, and hair in the skin of the palms and fingers.

5.  Application of homeostatic mechanisms

1. Explain how the integumentary system maintains homeostasis with respect to thermoregulation and water conservation.

2. Explain how the integumentary system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis.

6.  Predictions related to disruption of homeostasis

1. Given a factor or situation (e.g., second-degree burns [partial-thickness burns]), predict the changes that could occur in the integumentary system and the consequences of those changes (i.e., given a cause, state a possible effect).

2. *Given a disruption in the structure or function of the integumentary system (e.g., blisters), predict the possible factors or situations that might have caused that disruption (i.e., given an effect, predict possible causes).

1.  General functions of the skeletal system

1. Describe the major functions of the skeletal system.

2.  Structural components -- microscopic anatomy

1. List and describe the cellular and extracellular components of bone tissue.

2. Identify the microscopic structure of compact bone and spongy bone.

3. Using microscopic images, distinguish between the three different types of cartilage. 

4. Describe the roles of dense regular and dense irregular connective tissue in the skeletal system.

3.  Structural components -- gross anatomy

1. Classify bones of the skeleton based on their shape.

2. Identify and describe the structural components of a long bone, and explain their functions.

3. Define common bone marking terms (e.g., condyle, tubercle, foramen, canal). 

4. Describe the locations of the three types of cartilage in the skeletal system.

5. Describe how the location and distribution of red and yellow bone marrow varies during a lifetime.

4.  Physiology of embryonic bone formation (ossification or osteogenesis)

1. Explain the roles that specific bone cells play in the formation of bone tissue.

2. Compare and contrast intramembranous and endochondral (intracartilaginous) bone formation.

5.  Physiology of bone growth, repair, and remodeling

1. Compare and contrast the function of osteoblasts and osteoclasts during bone growth, repair, and remodeling.

2. Compare and contrast interstitial (lengthwise) and appositional (width or circumferential) growth.

3. Explain the hormonal regulation of skeletal growth.

4. Explain the roles of parathyroid hormone, calcitriol, and calcitonin in plasma calcium regulation and bone remodeling.

5. Describe the bone repair and remodeling process and how it changes as humans age.

6. Explain the steps involved in fracture repair. 

6.  Organization of the skeletal system

1. Distinguish between the axial and appendicular skeletons and list the major bones contained within each.

7.  Bones of the skeleton

1. Identify individual bones and their locations within the body.

2. Identify major bone markings (e.g., spines, processes, foramina) on individual bones.

3. Compare and contrast a fetal skull with an adult skull.

4. Compare and contrast the adult male and female skeletons.

8.  Classification, structure, and function of joints (articulations)

1. Describe the anatomical classification of joints based on structure: fibrous (i.e., gomphosis, suture, syndesmosis), cartilaginous (i.e., symphysis, synchondrosis), and synovial (i.e., planar/gliding, hinge, pivot, condylar, saddle, ball-and-socket), and provide examples of each type.

2. Describe the functional classification of joints (e.g., synarthrosis, diarthrosis) based on the amount of movement permitted, and provide examples of each type.

3. Explain the relationship between the anatomical classification and the functional classification of joints.

4. Identify and describe the major structural components of a typical synovial joint.

5. For each of the six structural types of synovial joints, describe its anatomic features, identify locations in the body, and predict the kinds of movement each joint allows.

6. Define the movements that typically occur at a joint (e.g., flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction, inversion, eversion, protraction, retraction).

9.  Application of homeostatic mechanisms

1. Explain how the skeletal system participates in homeostasis of plasma calcium levels.

10.  Predictions related to disruption of homeostasis

1. Given a factor or situation (e.g., osteoporosis), predict the changes that could occur in the skeletal system and the consequences of those changes (i.e., given a cause, state a possible effect).

2. *Given a disruption in the structure or function of the skeletal system (e.g., osteoarthritis), predict the possible factors or situations that might have caused that disruption (i.e., given an effect, predict the possible causes).