The ways individual characters are represented by the narrator or author of a text. This includes descriptions of the characters’ physical appearances, personalities, actions, interactions, and dialogue.
There are two different types of characterizations:
Indirect: The author does not explicitly tell us; we need to analyze the character's behavior to come up with a determination of the character
Direct: The author or other characters explicitly state the character of said character.
Spoken exchanges between characters in a dramatic or literary work, usually between two or more speakers.
Do not get dialogue confused with quotes. When pulling a quote from a reading it can be anything not just dialogue between characters.
A kind of literature. For instance, comedy, mystery, tragedy, satire, elegy, romance, and epic are all genres. Texts frequently draw elements from multiple genres to create dynamic narratives. Alastair Fowler uses the following elements to define genres:
organizational features (chapters, acts, scenes, stanzas)
length
mood (the Gothic novel tends to be moody and dark)
style (a text can be high, low, or in-between depending on its audience)
the reader’s role (readers of a mystery are expected to interpret evidence)
the author’s reason for writing (an epithalamion is a poem composed for marriage) (Mickics 132-3)
A term used to describe an author’s use of vivid descriptions “that evoke sense-impressions by literal or figurative reference to perceptible or ‘concrete’ objects, scenes, actions, or states” (Baldick 121). Imagery can refer to the literal landscape or characters described in a narrative or the theoretical concepts an author employs.
Think of the five senses in regards to this term. Does the language help you visualize, hear, feel, smell, or taste? Obviously not literally, but it is written in a way that you can think of one of these senses?
The sequence of events that occur through a work to produce a coherent narrative or story.
This is broken into five different ideas:
Exposition: Introductory material to a text
Inciting Incident: The moment that causes the main character to begin their journey
Rising Action: The important points that lead up to the climax
Climax: The high point of the story, usually this is the point that the story has reached its most exciting part
Falling Action: The important points after the climax that leads to the conclusion of the story
Denouement: The end of the story. Usually this is where everything is wrapped up for the reader and characters
The perspective (visual, interpretive, bias, etc.) a text takes when presenting its plot and narrative. For instance, an author might write a narrative from a specific character’s point of view, which means that that character is our narrative and readers experience events through his or her eyes.
First person: A story told from the perspective of one or several characters, each of whom typically uses the word “I.” This means that readers “see” or experience events in the story through the narrator’s eyes.
Second person: A narrative perspective that typically addresses that audience using “you.” This mode can help authors address readers and invest them in the story.
Third person: Describes a narrative told from the perspective of an outside figure who does not participate directly in the events of a story. This mode uses “he,” “she,” and “it” to describe events and characters.
Third-person omniscient point of view. The omniscient narrator knows everything about the story and its characters. This narrator can enter anyone’s mind, move freely through time, and give the reader their own opinions and observations as well as those of the characters. For example, William Golding's Lord of the Flies is told from a third-person omniscient point of view, giving the reader full access to the main character, Elizabeth, as well as the characters others around her.
Third-person limited omniscient. This point of view (often called a “close third”) is when an author sticks closely to one character but remains in third person. The narrator can do this for the entire novel, or switch between different characters for different chapters or sections. This point of view allows the author to limit a reader’s perspective and control what information the reader knows. It is used to build interest and heighten suspense.
Third-person objective. Third-person objective point of view has a neutral narrator that is not privy to characters’ thoughts or feelings. The narrator presents the story with an observational tone. Ernest Hemingway employs this narrative voice in his short story Hills Like White Elephants. An unknown narrator relays the dialogue between a couple as they wait for a train in Spain. This point of view puts the reader in the position of a voyeur, eavesdropping on a scene or story.
Comprising an author’s diction (word choice), syntax (way the author arranges their words and phrases to create sentences; Correct syntax examples include word choice, matching number and tense, and placing words and phrases in the right order), tone, characters, and other narrative techniques, “style” is used to describe the way an author uses language to convey his or her ideas and purpose in writing. An author’s style can also be associated to the genre or mode of writing the author adopts, such as in the case of a satire or elegy with would adopt a satirical or elegiac style of writing.
An object or element incorporated into a narrative to represent another concept or concern. Broadly, representing one thing with another. Symbols typically recur throughout a narrative and offer critical, though often overlooked, information about events, characters, and the author’s primary concerns in telling the story.
According to Baldick, a theme may be defined as “a salient abstract idea that emerges from a literary work’s treatment of its subject-matter; or a topic recurring in a number or literary works” (Baldick 258). Themes in literature tend to differ depending on author, time period, genre, style, purpose, etc.
Lets not get this confused with the subject of a text. The theme is the message that comes out of that subject.
A way of communicating information (in writing, images, or sound) that conveys an attitude. Authors convey tone through a combination of word-choice, imagery, perspective, style, and subject matter. By adopting a specific tone, authors can help readers accurately interpret meaning in a text.
Mood is the general feeling or atmosphere that a piece of writing creates within the reader.
In writing, prose refers to any written work that follows a basic grammatical structure (think words and phrases arranged into sentences and paragraphs). This stands out from works of poetry, which follow a metrical structure (think lines and stanzas).
Fictional Prose (Includes novels, novellas, short stories)
Non-fictional Prose (Includes biographies, essays, journals)
Heroic Prose (Includes legends, tales)
Poetry Prose ( poetry written in prose instead of using verse but maintaining poetic qualities)
This is typically a type of novel that depicts an individual’s coming-of-age through self-discovery and personal knowledge. Such stories often explore the protagonists’ psychological and moral development. Examples include Dickens’ Great Expectations and Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.
A novel composed primarily of letters sent and received by its principal characters. This type of novel was particularly popular during the eighteenth century.
According to Baldick, “a short written composition in prose that discusses a subject or proposes an argument without claiming to be a complete or thorough exposition” (Baldick 87). A notable example of the essay form is Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal,” which uses satire to discuss eighteenth-century economic and social concerns in Ireland.
An intermediate-length (between a novel and a short story) fictional narrative.
A character in a text who the protagonist opposes. The antagonist is often (though not always) the villain of a story.
Be sure to understand this does not mean they are the villain in the classical sense of good and evil. If a story is told from the perspective of the Joker, then Batman would be the antagonist because the main character of the story is not Batman but Joker.
A protagonist of a story who embodies none of the qualities typically assigned to traditional heroes and heroines. Not to be confused with the antagonist of a story, the anti-hero is a protagonist whose failings are typically used to humanize him or her and convey a message about the reality of human existence.
They are often reluctant heroes.
“a resonant figure of mythic importance, whether a personality, place, or situation, found in diverse cultures and different historical periods” (Mickics 24). Archetypes differ from allegories because they tend to reference broader or commonplace (often termed “stock”) character types, plot points, and literary conventions. Paying attention to archetypes can help readers identify what an author may posit as “universal truths” about life, society, human interaction, etc. based on what other authors or participants in a culture may have said about them.
In literature, an archetype is a typical character, an action, or a situation that seems to represent universal patterns of human nature. An archetype, also known as “universal symbol,” may be a character, a theme, a symbol, or even a setting.
He or she is a character who predominantly exhibits goodness, and struggles against evil in order to restore harmony and justice to society. Examples of hero include Beowulf, in the book Beowulf, Hercules, in the book Hercules, and d’Artagnan, from The Three Musketeers.
Such a character may be represented as a Fairy God Mother, who guides and directs a child, Mother Earth, who contacts people and offers spiritual and emotional nourishment, or a Stepmother who treats their stepchildren poorly. Examples of a mother figure include:
In Literature:
Lucy and Madame Defarge, from Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities
Disely, from William Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury
Gladriel, from J. R. R. Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings
Glinda, from the Frank Baum’s The Wonderful Wizard of Oz
In Fairy Tales:
The wicked stepmother in Charles Perrault’s Cinderella
The fairy godmothers in Charles Perrault’s Sleeping Beauty
Mother Goose
The grandmother in Charles Perrault’s Little Red Riding Hood
In Mythology:
The mythological figures of Persephone, Demeter, Hecate, Gorgon, Medusa
He or she is inexperienced, with many weaknesses, and seeks safety with others. Others like him or her because of the trust he or she shows in other people. Usually, the experience of coming of age comes in the later parts of the narratives. Examples of innocent youth include:
Pip in Charles Dickens’ Great Expectations
Nicholas in Charles Dickens’ The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby
Joseph from Henry Fielding’s The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews
His or her task is to protect the main character. It is through the wise advice and training of a mentor that the main character achieves success in the world. Examples of mentor include:
Gandalf in J. R. R. Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings
Parson Adams in Henry Fielding’s Joseph Andrews
Senex in Madeleine L’Engle’s A Wind in the Door
It is a duplicate or shadow of a character, which represents the evil side of his personality. Examples of doppelganger in popular literary works include:
Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein
Edgar Allen Poe’s William Wilson
Robert Louis Stevenson’s Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
A character that takes the blame for everything bad that happens. Examples of scapegoat include:
Snowball, in George Orwell’s Animal Farm
A character whose main function is to go to any extent to oppose the hero, or whom the hero must annihilate in order to bring justice. Examples of villain include:
Shere Khan, from Rudyard Kipling’s The Jungle Book stories
Long John Silver, from Robert Louis Stevenson’s Treasure Island
The main character takes a journey, which may be physical or emotional, to understand his or her personality, and the nature of the world. Examples of archetype in journey include:
Dante Alighieri’s The Divine Comedy
Henry Fielding’s The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews and of his Friend Mr. Abraham Adams
Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels
The main character undergoes experiences that lead him towards maturity. Examples of archetypes in initiation include:
Henry Fielding’s History of Tom Jones, a Foundling
Laurence Sterne’s The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman
Voltaire’s Candide
It represents the clash of forces that represent goodness with those that represent evil. Examples of this archetype include:
William Shakespeare’s Macbeth
William Golding's Lord of the Flies
The main character falls from grace in consequence of his or her own actions. Examples of archetype in fall include:
Oedipus, from Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex
Othello, from William Shakespeare’s Othello
According to Taafe, “An adjective, noun, or phase expressing some characteristic quality of a thing or person or a descriptive name applied to a person, as Richard the Lion-Hearted” (Taafe 58). An epithet usually indicates some notable quality about the individual with whom it addresses, but it can also be used ironically to emphasize qualities that individual might actually lack
The artistic representation of a concept, quality, or idea in the form of a person. Personification can also refer to “a person who is considered a representative type of a particular quality or concept” (Taafe 120). Many classical deities are good examples of personifications. For instance, the Greek god Ares is a personification of war.
The primary character in a text, often positioned as “good” or the character with whom readers are expected to identify. Protagonists usually oppose an antagonist.
According to Taafe, “Literally, in Latin, the ‘god from the machine’; a deity in Greek and Roman drama who was brought in by stage machinery to intervene in the action; hence, any character, event, or device suddenly introduced to resolve the conflict” (43)
A story that an author encloses around the central narrative in order to provide background information and context. This is typically referred to as a “story within a story” or a “tale within a tale.” Frame stories are usually located in a distinct place and time from the narratives they surround. Examples of stories with frame narratives include Canterbury Tales, Frankenstein, and Wuthering Heights
Beginning in “the middle of things,” or when an author begins a text in the midst of action. This often functions as a way to both incorporate the reader directly into the narrative and secure his or her interest in the narrative that follows
A literary mode that attempts to convert abstract concepts, values, beliefs, or historical events into characters or other tangible elements in a narrative. An example would be Animal Farm.
When a text references, incorporates, or responds to an earlier piece (including literature, art, music, film, event, etc). T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land (1922) offers an extensive example of allusion in literature. According to Baldick, “The technique of allusion is an economical means of calling upon the history or the literary tradition that author and reader are assumed to share”
Exaggerated language, description, or speech that is not meant to be taken literally, but is used for emphasis. For instance, “I’ve been waiting here for ages” or “This bag weighs a ton.”
A figure of speech that refers to one thing by another in order to identify similarities between the two (and therefore define each in relation to one another).
A figure of speech that substitutes a quality, idea, or object associated with a certain thing for the thing itself. For instance, referring to the sea as “the deep” are examples of metonymy. Using metonymy can not only evoke a specific tone (determined by the attribute being emphasized or the thing to which it refers), but also comments on the importance of the specific element that is doing the substituting.
A narrative work or writing style that mocks or mimics another genre or work. Typically, parodies exaggerate and emphasize elements from the original work in order to ridicule, comment on, or criticize their message.
A figure of speech that compares two people, objects, elements, or concepts using “like” or “as.”
Works Cited
For more information or to read about other literary terms, please see the following texts:
Baldick, Chris. Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford University Press, 2001.
Mikics, David. A New Handbook of Literary Terms. Yale University Press, 2007.
Taafe, James G. A Student’s Guide to Literary Terms. The World Publishing Company, 1967
A rhetorical device uses words in a certain way to convey meaning or to persuade. It can also be a technique used to evoke emotions within the reader or audience.
Skilled writers use many different types of rhetorical devices in their work to achieve specific effects. Some types of rhetorical devices can also be considered figurative language because they depend on a non-literal usage of certain words or phrases.
Alliteration refers to the recurrence of initial consonant sounds. The phrase "rubber baby buggy bumpers" is one example you might remember from your childhood. Alliteration is often associated with tongue twisters for kids, but brand names commonly use this technique too, such as American Apparel, Best Buy, and Krispy Kreme.
Allusion is a reference to an event, place, or person. For example, you might say, "I can't get changed that quickly, I'm not Superman!" Referring to something well known allows the writer to make a point without elaborating in great detail.
Anaphora repeats a word or phrase in successive phrases. "If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh?" is an example from Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice. The use of anaphora creates parallelism and rhythm, which is why this technique is often associated with music and poetry. However, any form of written work can benefit from this rhetorical device.
Antanagoge places a criticism and a compliment together to lessen the impact. "The car is not pretty, but it runs great" would be one example, because you're referring to the vehicle's good performance as a reason to excuse its unattractive appearance.
Antimetabole repeats words or phrases in reverse order. The famous John F. Kennedy quote, "Ask not what your country can do for you - ask what you can do for your country" is a well-known example.
Antiphrasis uses a word with an opposite meaning for ironic or humorous effect. "We named our chihuahua Goliath" is an example because a chihuahua is a very small dog and Goliath is a giant warrior from the famous Bible story.
Antithesis makes a connection between two things. Neil Armstrong said, "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind." This pairs the idea of one man's individual action with the greater implication for humanity as a whole.
An appositive places a noun or noun phrase next to another noun for descriptive purposes. An example would be, "Mary, queen of this land, hosted the ball." In this phrase, "queen of this land" is the appositive noun that describes Mary's role.
Enumeratio makes a point with details. For example, saying "The hotel renovation, including a new spa, tennis court, pool, and lounge, is finally complete" uses specific details to describe how large the renovation was.
Epanalepsis repeats something from the beginning of a clause or sentence at the end. Consider the Walmart slogan, "Always Low Prices. Always." The repeated words act as bookends, driving the point home.
An epithet is a descriptive word or phrase expressing a quality of the person or thing, such as calling King Richard I "Richard the Lionheart." Contemporary usage often denotes an abusive or derogatory term describing race, gender, sexual orientation, or other characteristics of a minority group.
Epizeuxis repeats one word for emphasis. A child who says, "The amusement park was fun, fun, fun" is using epizeuxis to convey what a wonderful time he had at the park.
Litotes make an understatement by using a negative to emphasize a positive. In this rhetorical device, a double negative is often used for effect. So saying someone is "not a bad singer" actually means you enjoyed hearing them sing.
Metanoia corrects or qualifies a statement. "You are the most beautiful woman in this town, nay the entire world" is an example of metanoia because the speaker is further clarifying the extent of the woman's beauty.
Onomatopoeia refers to words that imitate the sound they describe, such as "plunk," "whiz," or "pop." This type of figurative language is often used in poetry because it conveys specific images to the reader based on universal experiences. We are all familiar with the "squeal" of tires as a vehicle stops abruptly or the "jingle" of car keys in your pocket.
An oxymoron creates a two-word paradox-such as "near miss" or "seriously funny." An oxymoron is sometimes called a contradiction in terms and is most often used for dramatic effect.
Parallelism uses words or phrases with a similar structure. "Like father, like son" is an example of a popular phrase demonstrating parallelism. This technique creates symmetry and balance in your writing.
An understatement makes an idea less important than it really is. "The hurricane disrupted traffic a little" would be an understatement because hurricanes cause millions of dollars in damage and can lead to injuries or fatalities.