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“…we survive as a species in an environment, on this we build our infrastructure, on that our health, and on that our culture.” (Frumkin, 2016)
When a wildfire tears through a community, it can wipe out the environment as we know it and everything built on that foundation. It is understandable, then, that wildfire-induced destruction and upheaval can have wide-ranging impacts -- not only on the physical health of both affected populations, but also on their mental health and well-being. These impacts extend beyond the locations where specific fires occur. In many areas of the US and across the globe, seasonal smoky conditions year after year and widespread destruction of local environments can also have significant impacts on people's mental health. Understanding the causes and mechanisms of these impacts can help us mitigate them and build community resilience.
Note to Readers: This page briefly mentions suicide. For resources, visit 988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline. Additional information at the bottom of this page.
Mental Health and Social Determinants
Mental Health and Social Determinants
The impacts of climate crises such as wildfires disproportionately affect those who already shoulder a heavier burden of social inequities. The following factors are dubbed the "social determinants of mental health", and all contribute to the mechanisms by which wildfires can impact mental health outcomes (Clayton et al., 2021): wealth, housing, occupation, education, nutritional access, and medical care access. Thus, in order to equitably address the mental health impacts of wildfires, we need to ensure that our efforts center the needs of the following groups:
The economically disadvantaged
Communities of color, including Indigenous peoples
Children
Older adults
People with disabilities
People with pre-existing mental health conditions
Outdoor workers
(Clayton et al., 2021)
Levels of Impact
Levels of Impact
Wildfires impact mental health at various levels and through various mechanisms. The bullets below summarize impacts that are fully described in the page sections that follow.
There are the direct trauma: post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, generalized anxiety, and substance abuse are all mental health issues that are associated with experiencing fire events. The National Institutes of Mental Health offers more information about these mental health topics.
The mental toll of seasonal wildfire smoke exposure on psychological health and well-being is another way that broader swathes of the population are affected. This is an area of current research focus, as periods of smoky conditions become more and more of a seasonal norm in many places.
Finally, there is the psychological toll that environmental destruction induces more generally. The sense of grief, loss, and hopelessness associated with losing one’s land and home is something that Indigenous communities have long understood, and has recently been labeled in the academic literature as solastalgia.
Direct Trauma
Direct Trauma
Wildfires that threaten or destroy people’s homes and communities also pose multiple threats to mental health. While an acute stress response to a natural disaster is not a mental health issue per say, the evolution or persistence of this stress response into something with debilitating effects is cause for concern. Among both adults and children, elevated rated of PTSD are observed in communities affected by wildfires (To et al., 2021). PTSD prevalence does tend to decrease over time from the fire event, but effects can persist for decades in some people. Depression and anxiety similarly show increased rates in adults, adolescents, and children in communities impacted by wildfires (To et al., 2021).
For more:
Listen to this interview from Dr. David Eisenman, professor of medicine and public health at UCLA. This segment, titled “Wildfires and smoke are affecting our mental health”, aired on OBP's Think Out Loud program on 24 September, 2021 [21:06 minutes].
Current Research
Current Research
Bryant et al. (2021). The dynamic course of psychological outcomes following the Victorian Black Saturday bushfires.
A longitudinal study conducted by Dr. Richard Bryant, a professor of psychology at the University of New South Wales in Australia,and his team aimed to assess the prevalence over time of various mental health outcomes in a cohort of survivors of the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires in Victoria, Australia (Bryant et al., 2021). This study compared rates of PTSD, depression, alcohol use, severe distress, and mental health care receipt in individuals from regions impacted by the catastrophic Black Saturday fires. In order to assess changes in impact over time, the team collected data at three different time points post-fire: 3-4 years, 5 years, and 10 years. The authors report a number of significant findings:
Firstly, they stress that a majority of people display resilience and do not experience negative psychological outcomes despite the experience of a traumatic event.
Rates of psychological issues were higher at each time point for those in highly affected areas as compared to baseline rates in the Australian population.
Rates of PTSD, depression, and severe distress decreased between the 3-4 and 5 year time points. However, while rates of PTSD continued to decrease at the 10 year time point, rates of depression and alcohol use did not decrease between the 5 and 10 year time points.
The authors discuss the fact that continued depression over time may be connected to fire-related issues such as property loss, financial issues, and relocation and loss of social support. They conclude by emphasizing that provision of mental health support after natural disasters is not only an acute-phase intervention, but instead needs to help people deal of time with the long-term implications of the traumatizing events (Bryant et al., 2021).
Psychological Health and Well-Being
Psychological Health and Well-Being
Smoky conditions can impact mental health in a variety of ways (Eisenman et al., 2021).
The fear and stress that result from threats on your home, livelihood, or loved ones can be major sources of psychological distress.
Loss or reduction of normal activities, such as reduced time outdoors or in community settings, reduced ability to perform your job and earn an income (especially for those who work in sectors such as agriculture), and decreased financial or food security can also all be major sources of distress.
If the smoke or fire danger is severe enough that you need to evacuated from your home, that comes with another host of potentially stressful factors, including the loss of daily routines, disruptions to sleep patterns, school attendance issues, and others.
Finally, smoke can be triggering and serve as a reminder of previous traumatic encounters with wildfires.
The mental health impacts of exposure to smoky conditions is a relatively new area of study. The figure at right illustrates the work of David Eisenman's team at the UCLA Center for Healthy Climate Solutions, who synthesized the current literature on this topic in order to come up with potential causal mechanisms linking smoky conditions and mental health outcomes effects (Eisenman et al., 2021).
Environmental Grief and Loss
Environmental Grief and Loss
The term solastalgia refers to the grief, distress, and “homesickness” caused by environmental change to one’s home environment (Albrecht, 2007). Glenn Albrecht and his team originally coined this term in 2007 after examining the psychological impacts of environmental degradation in areas ravaged by drought and mining operations. They found that, along with grief and loss, powerlessness and hopelessness were also key pieces of the connection between ecosystem destruction and human distress.
Others, such as Valerie Small, a member of the Apsaalooke Nation and a faculty member at Colorado State University, point out that “solastalgia is not a new concept or condition,” but something that Indigenous peoples have felt and understood since colonization of their lands began (Shabahat, 2022). Erica Tom, Director of Native American Studies at Sonoma State University, is able to reconcile these two viewpoints – in her eyes, the concept of solastalgia helps to name the grief and sense of loss she felt after wildfires in 2017 burned the land she calls home, but also reminds us that we need to uplift and prioritize Native American knowledge and voices that have long been sources of knowledge on the interconnectedness of environmental and human health and well-being (Shabahat, 2022).
Related concepts & terms:
Ecological grief - "mourning and emotional response from the loss of nature" (To et al., 2021).
Eco-anxiety: "worry or distress regarding the negative consequences of environmental changes" (To et al., 2021).
Current Research
Current Research
Eisenman et al. (2015). An Ecosystems and Vulnerable Populations Perspective on Solastalgia and Psychological Distress After a Wildfire
A team from the UCLA Center for Healthy Climate Solutions applied the concept of solastalgia to wildfire contexts by examining the association between distress caused by fire damage to the natural landscape and psychological health (Eisenman et al., 2015). In their study, 1387 households affected by the 2011 Wallow Fire in Arizona were surveyed, and the findings indicate that a higher solastalgia score was associated with higher levels of clinically significant psychological distress.
The authors conclude that recovery efforts after fires should incorporate both forest management and community psychology principles (Eisenman et al., 2015).
Mitigating the Impacts
Mitigating the Impacts
Understanding the ways in which wildfires can impact mental health offers clues for how best to mitigate and address these impacts. Fire season preparedness, post-fire support, and community resilience-building are all areas in which strategic planning and action can make a difference.
For individuals:
Being prepared for a fire event, for example, by packing an emergency kit and "go-bag", can help manage some of the psychological distress of wildfire season (Epel and Fromer, n.d.).
Additionally, having strong social support, maintaining healthy levels of both acceptance and hope, practicing self-care, and taking climate-related action can all help manage the emotional toll of climate-related distress (Epel and Fromer, n.d.).
Children specifically, but people of all ages, may actually experience a protective benefit from spending time in and building connections with nature (Clayton et al., 2021).
Accessing mental health treatment and support directly following fire events is essential, particularly for children and adolescents. Part of this process involves reducing the stigma of seeking mental health support in general, and providing support that is culturally appropriate and trauma-informed.
For communities:
All mental health support needs to take into account the disproportionate burdens that vulnerable or disadvantaged populations bear when it comes to disaster preparation and response.
Provision of post-disaster mental health support and resources needs to be long-term and to take into account the long-term impacts that wildfire-related trauma can have. (Bryant et al., 2021). This support should be free and publicly available to anyone in need.
Dealing with the mental impacts of smoky conditions is a societal challenge, and more research on mediating factors is needed in order to guide policy solutions (Eisenman et al, 2021).
Combining elements of community psychology and forest management (for example, by organizing land restoration projects and replanting burned areas) have been noted as potential ways to address destruction-related traumas (To et al., 2021; Eisenman et al., 2015).
Indigenous scholars such as Daniel Wildcat, professor at Haskell Indian Nations University and member of the Muscogee Nation, suggest using our connection to the land not only as a source of grief, but also as a place to look for solutions (Shabahat, 2022).
Source: Environmental Health Sciences Center
Individuals may experience emotional trajectories similar to the one above after disasters such as wildfires.
Resources
Resources
The phone numbers listed below can connect you with direct support. In addition, much more information about coping and supporting the mental health of those impacted by wildfires can be found on each of the linked sources' websites.
National Disaster Distress Helpline (English and Spanish): 1(800) 985-5990, or text “TalkWithUs” or "Hablanos" to 66746 (Available 24/7)
988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline (formerly National Suicide Prevention) Lifeline: 1 (800) 273-8255
National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) Hotline: 1 (800) 950-6264 (Monday-Friday, 10:00 am to 6:00 pm EST)
Source: JPlenio. UCSF Psychiatry
Source: JJG53 on Flickr
County of Sonoma: Emergency Readiness, Response and Recovery (English and Spanish)
For more information compiled by OHSU-PSU School of Public Health students regarding the physical and mental impacts of wildfires among members of specific populations, see the following pages:
References
References
Albrecht, G., Sartore, G. M., Connor, L., Higginbotham, N., Freeman, S., Kelly, B., Stain, H., Tonna, A., & Pollard, G. (2007). Solastalgia: the distress caused by environmental change. Australasian Psychiatry: Bulletin of Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists, 15 Suppl 1, S95–S98. https://doi.org/10.1080/10398560701701288
Bryant, R.A., Gibbs, L., Colin Gallagher, H., et al. (2021). The Dynamic Course of Psychological Outcomes Following the Victorian Black Saturday Bushfires. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 55(7), 666-677. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867420969815
Clayton, S., Manning, C. M., Speiser, M., & Hill, A. N. (2021). Mental Health and Our Changing Climate: Impacts, Inequities, Responses. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, and ecoAmerica. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/mental-health- climate-change.pdf
Eisenman, D. P., McCaffrey, S., Donatello, I., & Marshal, G. (2015). An Ecosystems and Vulnerable Populations Perspective on Solastalgia and Psychological Distress After a Wildfire. EcoHealth, 12(4), 602–610. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-015-1052-1
Eisenman, D. P., Kyaw, M.M.T., and Eclarino, K. (2021) Review of the Mental Health Effects of Wildfire Smoke, Solastalgia, and Non- Traditional Firefighters. UCLA Center for Healthy Climate Solutions, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, & Climate Resolve. Los Angeles, CA. https://healthyclimatesolutions.org
Epel, E. and Fromer, E. (n.d.) Coping with Wildfires and Climate Change Crises. Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, San Francisco. https://psychiatry.ucsf.edu/copingresources/wildfires
Frumkin, H. (2016). Environmental Health: From Global to Local (3rd ed.). Jossey-Bass.
Shabahat, E. (May 16, 2022). Solastalgia: Naming the Grief of Climate Change. KCET, Public Media Group of Southern California. https://www.kcet.org/shows/earth-focus/solastalgia-naming-the-grief-of-climate-change
To, P., Eboreime, E., & Agyapong, V. (2021). The Impact of Wildfires on Mental Health: A Scoping Review. Behavioral sciences (Basel, Switzerland), 11(9), 126. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11090126
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