Scientific Writing
How to Write a Scientific Paper Ethically and Effectively
This writing guide explains how we summarize scientific results in a more traditional full-length report. It explains the traditional format of a scientific paper: Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Let's look at the basic components of a journal article and some general guidelines..
First, let's look at what scientific papers do:
Persuade others to accept or reject hypotheses by presenting data and interpretations
Offer insights about experimental observations and explain unexpected results
Detail data, procedures, and outcomes for future researchers
Become part of the accepted body of scientific knowledge when published unless later disproved
Provide an archival record for reference and document a current situation for future comparison
In accomplishing these aims, there are some ethical considerations that are receiving current emphasis in science and big pharma. Besides unintentional errors (lack of accounting for measurement error or experimental controls; data misinterpretation), there are intentional acts of negligence, which are termed scientific misconduct:
Fabrication: manufacturing research data out of thin air (synthesis)
Falsification: manipulation of research data or processes to reflect a certain result
Obfuscation: the omission of critical data or results. Example: Only reporting positive outcomes and not adverse outcomes (that contradict your hypothesis)
Bare assertions: making entirely unsubstantiated claims
Combinations of the above include inappropriate, and statistically invalid, culling of experimental data, or excessive filtration of noise to suggest a correlation when none exists.
Lastly, there a few other forms of scientific misconduct:
Plagiarism: to commit literary theft, to use another's work or ideas without crediting the source, or to present as new and original an existing product (Merriam-Webster). In summary, never copy-and-paste and always cite the original work when using or modifying an idea. Comparing your work to the original shows how your paper is novel and important in the context of existing knowledge.
Self-plagiarism: aka duplicate publication: publishing the same essential content in different journal titles
Violation of ethical standards for human and animal experiments (informed consent; undue harm)
Authorship fraud: everyone who made a "substantial contribution" to the research should be named as coauthor. This is defined as someone who contributed intellectually to the study design, implementation, interpretation and manuscript writing.
Examples of inappropriate authorship:
Ghostwriting: drug companies contributing to a study may mask their contribution and instead use a 'guest author' at an academic institution who had little involvement
Gift or honorary authorship: naming an author because of their status or prestige
Now let's look at what a scientific paper consists of...
Title
Reflect the factual content with less than ten words in a straightforward manner.
Use keywords researchers and search engines on the Internet will recognize.
Usually not a complete sentence but should be grammatically correct. Begin with an action verb or noun NOT: A(An) or The.
Examples: 1) Binding of small molecules to an adaptive protein-protein interface.
2) Protein-ligand binding cooperativity revealed by dynamic structural analysis.
3) Increased Diels-Alderase activity through Foldit player-guided backbone remodeling
Abstract
A one paragraph concise summary (100-200 words) of the study purpose, methods, findings (results) and major conclusions. Begin with one sentence introducing the overall problem and its importance. The second sentence usually describes your hypothesis and how you tested it. It is best to begin writing the abstract summary after you have written the paper.
To start writing a manuscript, first construct an outline of the following sections with subheaders detailing the points planned for each paragraph. For your first report, turn in an outline to the instructor to make sure you're on the right track. If you feel blocked, do some background reading to get inspired--especially of your own prior work.
Introduction
A few paragraphs introducing the problem (hypothesis) and its importance by reviewing all articles that are relevant or closely related to your study. Ends with a paragraph summarizing your study design and how it fits in with what has been done already.
Methods
A few paragraphs outlining your protocols and materials. It needs to be detailed enough so that another research can duplicate your experiment to verify your findings. If you followed another published protocol (as in these tutorials), simply summarize the essential steps (not every one) and cite the protocol. Explain why you did what you did and any problems encountered and what you did differently. Remember to vary your sentence structure, but use past tense, passive voice.
Results
Subheadings should be used to organize your results into the main topical areas, or sections. Concentrate on general trends and differences and not on trivial details. Summarize the data from the experiments without discussing their implications. Organize data into tables and figures. Data in a table should not be duplicated in a figure. Title all figures and tables (not a complete sentence). For figures, include a caption explaining what the data shows (x- and y-axes labeled in sans-serif bold font) as well as symbols, abbreviations, or special methods. X- and y-scales should be proportional to the range of values to minimize wasted space--a log scale may be needed. Figures and tables must be referenced sequentially in the text and numbered separately:
Correct: Enzyme activity was measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) at varying substrate concentrations (Figure 1). The linear dependence observed suggests...
Incorrect: Figure 1 shows the enzyme analysis.
General principles of scientific writing:
Don't use unspecified pronouns: do NOT begin a sentence with 'This' or 'That'--specify exactly what you are talking about.
Follow good writing practice: begin paragraphs with an introductory sentence, follow with three supporting statements, and finish with a concluding sentence.
Keep your writing impersonal; avoid the use of the first person (i.e. I or we)
Use the past tense for results obtained and the present tense to refer to figures or explain the significance of results.
Write out all numbers beginning sentences or less than 10 (write numerals if associated with measurements (i.e. 2 mm).
Discussion
Interpret the data and what they mean; do not restate the results
Relate results to existing theory and knowledge (how yours differs)
Explain the logic that allows you to accept or reject your original hypotheses (conclusions)
Speculate as necessary but identify it as such
Include suggestions for improving your techniques or design, or clarify areas of doubt for further research
Conclusions. End the paper with 1-3 paragraphs summarizing the study's findings and its importance or relevance to future questions/work.
Literature Cited
Just as all figures must be mentioned in the text, only include references cited in the paper, typically numbered in that order (eg MLA or CBE format): Authors. Year. Title. Source: Pages.
Writing with Impact
When writing an article, be able to summarize the entire work in one sentence that expresses its impact.
Have this theme present throughout the work, and without being repetitive, demonstrate that statement.
Your mission statement should be obviously present in each of: title, abstract, intro and discussion.
Grading Rubric (Lab reports only)
Points / Rubric:
Disorganized, inaccurate, or lacking complete paragraphs that flow.
Poorly structured and unconvincing.
Spelling and grammar issues; incomplete explanations.
Clearly recorded, interpreted, and organized.
Results are fully motivated, evaluated, and explained.
Reference:
Responsible Conduct of Research
Adil E. Shamoo and David B. Resnik
© 2009 Oxford University Press
ISBN-13: 978-0195368246
For the reverse process: How to read a research paper.