The history of Africa is rich with culturally diverse traditions, languages and empires. There are thousands of indigenous languages throughout Africa and the cultural traditions and ethnic groups vary by region.

Africa is the second largest continent in the world. Today, it has over 50 countries and over a billion people. Thriving with rich a history, Africa has influenced the world through art, music, food, dance and culture.

Ghana

Around the year 300 CE, the Kingdom of Ghana was founded by the Soninke people in the region between the Senegal and Niger Rivers. The people of Ghana used their ability to make iron swords, spears and lances to subdue neighboring people and to gain control over West Africa's main trade routes. Caravans brought salt south to Ghana, and returned north with gold from areas southwest of Ghana. The power of the kings of Ghana rested on their ability to tax all trade passing through the region. With these rich revenues, they were able to raise a large army and fine cavalry.

The people of the Kingdom of Ghana practiced a polytheistic religion, meaning they believed in many gods. The spirits of ancestors also played an important role in their religion. The king of Ghana was not just a political leader, but a religious one as well, who performed different rituals and ceremonies to please the gods. In the mid-600s CE, Muslim invaders entered the Kingdom of Ghana; though Ghana defeated their advances, many Muslims settled in the kingdom. The Kingdom of Ghana practiced tolerance towards the Muslims, and Islam continued to spread throughout the region. The city of Kumbi became the home of twelve different mosques, or places of Muslim worship. In 1076 CE the Almoravids, a group of Muslim invaders, captured Kumbi and increased the influence of Islam.

Although Ghana profited greatly from the taxes it collected from the salt-gold trade, the people of Ghana boast other important achievements. The Nok people, who resided in modern-day Nigeria, were the first to use iron to make farming tools and weapons. The iron technology spread throughout Ghana and contributed to its ability to conquer neighboring tribes along the Niger River. Iron farming tools also made farming along the Niger River more efficient. Food surpluses, or an excess supply of food, supported Ghana’s growing population.

The Kingdom of Ghana was a dominating force in West Africa. Through a strong government and military, Ghana conquered neighboring kingdoms and spread its influence throughout the region. The king, called the “ghana,” was the head of government and had supreme authority. He held court on a daily basis to listen to the problems of his people. Below the king, governors oversaw cities and territories in the kingdom, while ministers oversaw various aspects of the empire, like the military and tax collector. Ministers also served as advisers to the king. The Kingdom of Ghana was very wealthy due to the salt-gold trade; while Ghana traded many goods of its own, most of its wealth came from taxes on trade. The taxes were used to build and maintain a large army used for self-defense and to conquer other peoples. All men were required to complete military training. Vassal kings, or local rulers conquered by Ghana, paid tribute to the king. Unlike many other societies, the son of the king did not become the ruler after his father passed away. Instead, the bloodlines for ruling were matrilineal, or through the mother’s side; the son of the king’s sister would take the throne. Perhaps the greatest ruler was Ghana Tenkamenin, who ruled from 1062-1076 CE. Tenkamenin carefully managed the gold trade route and the empire's economy flourished. He controlled a 200,000 man army, 40,000 of which were bowmen, and maintained order. Tenkamenin would also go out into his kingdom and personally listen to the concerns of all of his subjects.

The Kingdom of Ghana became a powerful empire as a result of trans-Saharan trade. Ghana was located between salt mines in North Africa and the gold mines located along West Africa’s southern forest. Ghana acted as an intermediary between the north and south, collecting heavy taxes for all goods that entered or left the kingdom. Around 300 CE, camels became an important part of trading caravans traveling through the Sahara. Camels are adapted to the harsh environment; they are able to travel for several days without having to drink water, and their thick eyelashes allow them to see in the sandy desert. Northern traders traded salt, cowrie shells, and copper while southern traders provided gold. People living in the southern part of West Africa relied on valuable salt to preserve and favor their food, as well as restore their natural pH balance from sweating. Much of North Africa’s salt came from Taghaza, while the mines of Wangara to the south of the Kingdom of Ghana produced gold. Kumbi, Ghana’s most important and wealthiest city, benefited from the trans-Saharan trade and provided many of its own commodities as well, including slaves, jewelry, and ivory. The taxes collected from the salt-gold trade in Ghana allowed the kingdom to grow increasingly powerful.

Ghana reached its peak around 1000 CE. However, this strength and regional dominance was relatively short-lived. A group of strict Muslims living in the Kingdom of Ghana, known as the Almoravids, believed it was their destiny to take over Ghana. In 1076 CE, the Almovarids sacked the capital of Kumbi and overthrew the king. Although the king of Ghana was reinstated in 1087, the Kingdom of Ghana was severely weakened after fourteen years of fighting. Other factors contributed to Ghana’s decline as well. Around the 12th century, a drought hit the kingdom. Most of the resources the area depended on, especially gold mining were cut short. The drought had a large effect on how the land could be used. What was once a fertile place brimming with cattle, sheep and goats, became dry and dead. Ghana slowly lost all of their trading power. The gold was mined in other places and the economy went elsewhere. Nearby civilizations began to attack the failing empire, starting with the Sosso people. In 1235, the Mali empire officially took over.

Mali & Songhai

The Mali Empire (1240-1645 CE) of West Africa was founded by Sundiata Keita following his victory over the kingdom of Sosso. Sundiata’s centralized government, diplomacy and well-trained army permitted a massive military expansion which would pave the way for a flourishing of the Mali Empire, making it the largest yet seen in Africa. The reign of Mansa Musa I (1312-1337 CE) saw the empire reach new heights in terms of territory controlled, cultural fluorescence, and the staggering wealth brought through Mali’s control of regional trade routes. Acting as a middle-trader between North Africa via the Sahara desert and the Niger River to the south, Mali exploited the traffic in gold, salt, copper, ivory, and slaves that crisscrossed West Africa. Muslim merchants were attracted to all this commercial activity, and they converted Mali rulers who in turn spread Islam via such noted centers of learning as Timbuktu. In contrast to cities like Niani (the capital), Djenne, and Gao, most of the rural Mali population remained farmers who clung to their traditional animist beliefs. The Mali Empire collapsed in the 1460s CE following civil wars, the opening up of trade routes elsewhere, and the rise of the neighboring Songhai Empire.

The Songhai Empire (aka Songhay, c. 1460 - c. 1591 CE) replaced the Mali Empire as the most important state in West Africa . Originating as a smaller kingdom along the eastern side of the bend of the Niger River c. 1000 CE, the Songhai would expand their territory dramatically from the reign of King Sunni Ali (1464-1492 CE). With its capital at Gao and managing to control trans-Saharan trade through such centers as Timbuktu and Djenne, the empire prospered throughout the 16th century CE until, ripped apart by civil wars, it was attacked and absorbed into the Moroccan Empire c. 1591 CE.

GEOGRAPHY

The Kingdom of Mali grew rapidly to encompass the territory between the Atlantic Ocean and Lake Chad, a distance of nearly 1,800 miles. At its height in 1300, Mali was one of the largest empires in the world encompassing all or part of the modern nations of Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Nigeria, and Chad. Within the empire important cities were Timbuktu, Niani (the capital), Djenne, and Gao. Ultimately, the Songhai conquered the Kingdom of Mali, extending their empire from the Atlantic Ocean well past the Niger River. At its peak, the Kingdom of Songhai spanned across modern-day Burkina Faso, Benin, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Nigeria.

RELIGION

Islam played a much greater role in the Kingdoms of Mali and Songhai. The Mande people of Mali accepted Islam but retained many of their traditional practices, including ancestor worship, seeking guidance from and holding the spirits of deceased ancestors in high esteem. Islam is a monotheistic religion, meaning there is only one god. Before the king Mansa Musa, the leaders of Mali restricted some of the teachings of Islam. Mansa Musa, however, was a devout Muslim. As part of his faith, Mansa Musa went on the hajj to Makkah (Mecca); on his trek, he passed through Egypt. Tales of his wealth and power spread across Africa, Europe, and the Middle East. Mansa Musa commissioned mosques and turned Timbuktu into an important center of culture, religion, and education. At the beginning of the Kingdom of Songhai, its first leader Sunni Ali was not a devout Muslim. Eventually, Askia Mohammed Toure or Askia the Great was placed on the throne. Askia strictly enforced Islam and even went to war to convert non-believers. People of Mali and Songhai followed the Five Pillars of Islam and embraced the Muslim way of life.

Decline of Mali

The Kingdom of Mali enjoyed over a century of dominance in West Africa. Mansa Musa was a powerful and impactful ruler. However, after his death, the Kingdom of Mali suffered under weak leadership. Invaders, hungry for Mali’s vast resources and wealth, weakened the empire and burned schools in the kingdom’s most important city, Timbuktu. The Kingdom of Mali, roughly twice as large as its predecessor, Ghana, was so vast that it became difficult for its leaders to manage; as a result, outlying areas began to break of from the empire, including the Kingdom of Songhai. Mali’s kings were no longer able to protect their territory. Songhai eventually defeated the Kingdom of Mali, and made it a part of its own extensive empire in West Africa.

Decline of Songhai

Under the leadership of Sunni Ali, Songhai was able to break away from the Kingdom of Mali and establish its own separate and unified kingdom. The small kingdom rapidly grew and eventually absorbed the Kingdom of Mali as part of its empire. Due to its exceptional wealth and prosperity, the Kingdom of Songhai was appealing to external forces. In the late 1500s, Moroccan troops, armed with guns, captured Songhai’s valuable salt mines and sought to take over the prosperous gold mines as well. Songhai would stay around for another 150 years, but not as a well-organized empire. The kingdom broke into a series of military camps.