As we delve into the world of Epictetus, a revered exponent of Stoicism, I am humbled and grateful for the guidance of Michael Tremblay, who introduced me to the teaching model employed by this great philosopher. In the upcoming article, I aim to share a heartfelt summary of Michael's insightful work, exploring how Epictetus' teachings have inspired countless individuals to embrace Stoic principles in their daily lives in practical ways.

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Stoicism is an ancient philosophical school that advocates for cultivating inner strength, resilience, and wisdom through the acceptance of life's inherent challenges and uncertainties. Rooted in the belief that we cannot control external events but can control our reactions and attitudes, Stoicism emphasizes the development of virtue, rationality, and self-discipline as the key to a tranquil and fulfilling life.

The challenge that Epictetus was trying to address were moral failures made by students of Stoicism. Most of them were familiar with at least some theory and the general principles of the philosophy. Yet, their behavior in daily life did not reflect their studies. This failure to live up to virtue was a result of lack of integration.

Epictetus consistently evoked the image of an athlete to challenge that belief. Rather than using medical imagery, which portrays the goal of philosophy as healing a negative part of oneself, or militaristic imagery, which focuses on defense or attack, athletic imagery frames virtue as an achievement to be celebrated. The previous perspectives stem from a mindset of lack or deficiency.

With this approach, he argued that athletes do not lift weights and condition their bodies just to go home and rest; they do so in order to increase their chances of achieving sporting victory. In the same way, people should not read books to boast about having read them; they do so to gain a better understanding of themselves and to find deeper meaning in their lives.

“Come now, show me what progress you're making in this regard. Suppose I were talking with an athlete and said, Show me your shoulders, and he were to reply, “Look at my jumping-weights.” That's quite enough of you and your weights! What I want to see is what you've achieved by use of those jumping-weights.” - Epictetus (Disc. 1.4.13-4)

Athletes train hard, knowing that they may not even achieve victory against their peers. These qualities separate an athlete from someone who merely plays because there are lifestyle sacrifices involved in attaining peak performance.

Mechanics of Reaction 

In Stoicism, there is a causal chain that underlies psychology, which looks like this:


Impression (leads to) Assent (leads to) Impulse

Impressions are our mental representations of a particular state of affairs. They are pre-cognitive judgments that arise based on our past conditioning. For Epictetus, moral progress consists of learning to skillfully utilize impressions in order to exert some control over the chain of reactions. Although impressions can be somewhat involuntary, conditioning can shape them. For example, it can influence the way pessimistic and optimistic people react to the world.

“Here is the true athlete, one who trains himself to confront such impressions” - Epictetus (Disc. 2.18.27)

The assent is a result of reflection or an implicit reaction. It takes the initial impression and applies a judgement that amplifies felt the emotional undertones of the impression. While impressions are in some way reactive, the Stoics believe that assent is a commanding faculty to approve the impression. To assent to an impression is to take its content as truth.

Finally, the impulse is the result of a specific combination of impression and assent. It is the will toward action that we experience as a result of having assented to a given impression. It is in this sense that the Stoics (and cognitive psychologists) argue that our emotions are malleable. This is because they are influenced by pre-conditioned habitual perspectives and cognitive or implied judgments.

Let's take the specific case of an insult.

A non-stoic reaction:

impression: someone is subtle mocking me in front of others

assent: this person is an asshole, I am going to get revenge

impulse: I insult the person back more literally with anger

A stoic reaction:

impression: someone is subtly mocking me in front of others

deny assent: movement of air from a mouth cannot hurt me

impulse: none, I just walk away and move on

Of course, this is much easier said than done, and it requires constant practice. Epictetus describes training is necessary to ‘digest' our theories. Through repetition, neural pathways are created in the brain, which in turn influence default behavior and reactions. This is how theories of virtue can be translated into consistent action.

“If from the moment they get up in the morning they adhere to their ideals, eating and bathing like a person of integrity, putting their principles into practice in every situation they face — the way a runner does when he applies the principles of running — that is where you will see true progress embodied “ - Epictetus (Discourses I, 4.20)

There are two types of exercises he recommends: preventative and remedial. Both types aim to cultivate wisdom by helping individuals develop accurate perspectives about the world we are a part of.

Preventative Exercises  

Preventive exercises prevent the formation of new false beliefs.

The first exercise he recommended has been termed critical assent. This process involves taking initial impressions and applies a critical perspective while withholding judgment, allowing for sufficient time to thoroughly analyze the impression.

“But first of all, don't allow yourself to be dazed by the rapidity of the impact, but say, ‘Wait a while for me, my impression, let me see what you are, and what you're an impression of; let me test you out.' And then don't allow it to lead you on by making you picture all that may follow, or else it will take possession of you and conduct you wherever it wants.” - Epictetus (Disc. 2.18.24-26)

The second step of this preventive exercise is to evaluate the impression through a test or subjecting it to standards. Is the object of the impression within our control or outside of it? This test tells us whether the object of the impression should be judged as good or bad, or if it should be judged indifferently.

Lastly, we can make a more well-informed decision about whether we should assent, dissent, or suspend judgment. This ensures the digestion of theory by increasing the odds of us reacting wisely, rather than rashly, to impressions.

Another practice he recommends is constant repetition.

“Both by night and by day, keep these reflections at hand; write them down, read them, make them the subject of your conversation, whether with yourself, or with another. “ - Epictetus (Disc. 3.24.103)

Marcus Aurelius exemplifies this concept in his personal diary "The Meditations." Originally intended for private reflection, the diary served as a means for him to explore the theoretical concepts he had learned and observe how these ideas manifested in real-life experiences. Through his teachings, Marcus urges us to recognize the powerful impact our thoughts have on shaping our experience. He reminds us that "the things you think about determine the quality of your mind. Your soul takes on the color of your thoughts."

The final practice is about abstinence.

In this, he recognizes that during training, not everyone is prepared for difficult battles. The weaknesses of desire and aversion are managed the in two stages. Initially, the agent should avoid the objects or situations that trigger strong emotions. By abstaining from desired objects such as power, money, sex, or other sensory pleasures, the attachment to these objects diminishes. Once the reactivity to these objects has subsided, we can then properly interact with them with clearer understanding.

“But to begin with, keep well away from what is stronger than you. If a pretty girl is set against a young man who is just making a start on philosophy, that is no fair contest. “ - Epictetus (Disc. 3.12.11-12)

It is better to gradually develop these qualities and behaviors before fully re-engaging with the world and previously challenging objects. This will allow for deeper insight and clarity. There is no way to avoid the multitude of challenging impressions in life, and this training emphasizes the importance of skillfully reengaging with these objects and situations.

Remedial Exercises

These serve to correct previously held misunderstandings. The first exercise is called habituation, which involves cultivating positive habits in situations where we might otherwise act improperly. It forces us to re-evaluate a change the beliefs that caused the situation to begin with, by clearly understanding the price that was paid.

“When you've yielded to sexual desire, don't count that as being just a slight defeat, but recognize that you've fortified your incontinence, you've given it added strength. For it cannot fail to come about that, as a result of the corresponding actions, some habits and capacities will be developed if they didn't previously exist, while others that were already present will be reinforced and strengthened. And if this happens repeatedly, a callus will finally be formed and the infirmity will cause the avarice to become entrenched.” - Epictetus (Disc. 2.18.1-9)

A false belief in this instance could have been used to justify our incorrect actions. Other ways this can manifest are through anger, the pursuit of pleasure, or complete avoidance of pain. Habituation requires acknowledging and deep self-reflection on mistaken beliefs, as well as taking appropriate action in that context. Over time, with diligent effort, the fundamental habit patterns should shift.

The second exercise is reframing. In order to see beyond our immediate impressions, passions and fears, reframing can be used to effectively confront challenging situations.

“It is difficulties that reveal what men amount to; and so, whenever you're struck by a difficulty, remember that God, like a trainer in the gymnasium, has matched you against a tough young opponent. ‘For what purpose?', someone asks. So that you may become an Olympic victor; and that is something that can't be achieved without sweat. It seems to me that no one had a difficulty that gives a better opportunity than the one you now have, if only you're willing to tackle it as an athlete tackles his young adversary.” Epictetus (Disc. 1.24.1-2)

In some ways, the challenges and obstacles are necessary for the development of wisdom and compassion, through trials by fire. However, this final exercise is considered remedial, and to be used if the situation has been framed in a way that does not serve cultivation.

In summary, by skillfully managing their reactions, exercising critical assent, and applying preventative and remedial exercises, individuals can align their actions with their philosophical beliefs. Epictetus' teachings remind us that true progress comes not from theory alone, but from living out our virtues in every aspect of our lives. Embracing this transformative approach can lead to greater wisdom, inner peace, and fulfillment.

Source: 

Theory and Training in Epictetus' Program of Moral Education

Micheal Tremblay 

https://qspace.library.queensu.ca/handle/1974/28873