Science Blog

Cordyceps: The zombie fungus

With over 600 species of fungi affecting hundreds of insects ranging from ants to moths to grasshoppers to wasps and more, the genus Cordyceps has proven itself to be the closest natural parallel to its supernatural zombie equivalents. Though extremely diverse, all members of this parasitic group seem to have one key characteristic linking them to the walking dead; hijacking the muscles of insects, slowly taking over their body until eventually bursting out of their host’s body and releasing millions of new spores ready to start the whole process over again!

Ophiocordyceps unilateralis

One of the best and most famous examples of a Cordyceps fungus includes Ophiocordyceps unilateralis -- a species of fungus prevalent in tropical rainforests which attacks and infects specific species of ants such as carpenter or bullet ants. When landing on a suitable host, the spores of this fungus will begin to penetrate the exoskeleton and spread tube-like “fingers” known as hyphae throughout the insect’s body via the bloodstream. These hyphae strands begin to take over the ant’s muscle structure by growing around their muscle cells or by directly penetrating them, all the while killing off neurons in the ant’s brain responsible for controlling muscle movement. After around a week, Ophiocordyceps unilateralis begins releasing special chemicals which force their now unwavering captive to depart from its colony and search for favourable environments which would support the further development and reproduction of the parasitic fungus. Once such a suitable location is found (be it high on a stem or on the underside of a leaf around 10 to 25 cm off the ground), the fungus will release toxins forcing the hypercontraction of the ants jaw muscles -- creating the infamous “death bite” -- sealing its terrible fate. As the helpless ant remains immobile -- forced to clamp down for the rest of its life -- the hyphae strands within the ant’s body eventually grow enough to form a mycelial mass. This bundle slowly devours the organism from the inside out until it eventually bursts through the body of the now dead insect (more often than not through the head), ready to spread its devilish spores and infect the next ant unlucky enough to be sentenced to death. This entire process from infection to the dispersal of spores takes around a bit more than a week and has a 100% mortality rate -- having the power to wipe out entire ant colonies with a single infection.

Not all bad news

Though Cordyceps sounds like it is only one bad mutation away from bringing human zombies from science fiction to science fact, this genus of fungi has a variety of positive health benefits for humanity, including being used as an anti-inflammatory drug, an immunosuppressive drug used in organ transplants, a possible treatment for type-2 diabetes, a great supplement which can boost your immune system, kidney function, and heart health, and even a potential performance enhancement drug! Supporters of Cordyceps-based medicine tout its high antioxidant and adenosine content as well as its ability to stimulate ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and mimic the blood-sugar regulating effects of insulin as the basis for its numerous medicinal properties. Despite having already been used in traditional chinese medicine for centuries, fungi of the genus Cordyceps (specifically of the species Cordyceps sinensis) have begun to experience an explosion in widespread usage in the past decade and a half -- earning it the nickname“Himalayan Gold” due to its newfound extreme value as well as its traditional harvest location atop the Himalayan plateaus.

Zombies: Science fiction rather than science fact

Zombies have had an undeniable effect on pop culture and science fiction, however, at the end of the day, it is certainly better for everybody’s peace of mind (not to mention the continued survival of the human race) that zombies remain just a little bit more small scale!

Works Cited

“6 Benefits of Cordyceps, All Backed by Science.” Healthline, 9 May 2018, https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/cordyceps-benefits.

ADENOSINE: Overview, Uses, Side Effects, Precautions, Interactions, Dosing and Reviews. https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-1067/adenosine. Accessed 16 Apr. 2021.

Cordyceps: Attack of the Killer Fungi - Planet Earth Attenborough BBC Wildlife. www.youtube.com, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XuKjBIBBAL8. Accessed 16 Apr. 2021.

“Cordyceps Mushrooms Explained + The Health Benefits.” Real Mushrooms, 17 Aug. 2017, https://www.realmushrooms.com/cordyceps-supplements-guide/.

Editors, B. D. “Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).” Biology Dictionary, 20 Jan. 2017, https://biologydictionary.net/atp/.

Editors, B. D. “Hyphae.” Biology Dictionary, 22 Jan. 2018, https://biologydictionary.net/hyphae/.

“How a Parasitic Fungus Turns Ants into ‘Zombies.’” Animals, 18 Apr. 2019, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/cordyceps-zombie-fungus-takes-over-ants.

“How a Zombie Fungus Takes Over Ants’ Jaws to Deliver a Death Bite.” Discover Magazine, https://www.discovermagazine.com/environment/how-a-zombie-fungus-takes-over-ants-jaws-to-deliver-a-death-bite. Accessed 16 Apr. 2021.

Mycelial Mass | Medical Journals. https://www.iomcworld.org/medical-journals/mycelial-mass-51815.html. Accessed 16 Apr. 2021.

Panda, Ashok Kumar, and Kailash Chandra Swain. “Traditional Uses and Medicinal Potential of Cordyceps Sinensis of Sikkim.” Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine, vol. 2, no. 1, 2011, pp. 9–13. PubMed Central, doi:10.4103/0975-9476.78183.

“The Fungus That Reduced Humanity to The Last of Us.” Scientific American Blog Network, https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/but-not-simpler/the-fungus-that-reduced-humanity-to-the-last-of-us/. Accessed 16 Apr. 2021.

Yong, Ed. “How the Zombie Fungus Takes Over Ants’ Bodies to Control Their Minds.” The Atlantic, 14 Nov. 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/11/how-the-zombie-fungus-takes-over-ants-bodies-to-control-their-minds/545864/.

Carbon Dioxide Removal

Carbon Geoengineering techniques aim to remove carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, directly battling the increased greenhouse effect and ocean acidification. These techniques would have to be performed on a global scale to have a meaningful impact on greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere. Some proposed techniques include Afforestation which is a global-scale tree-planting effort and Biochar that charr's biomass and buries it so that its carbon is locked up in the soil. Other techniques require more infrastructure like Ambient Air Capture. This means building large machines that can remove carbon dioxide directly from ambient air and store it away. Unlike technologies that are focused on removing CO2, other techniques like Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement focus on relieving effects already created from global warming. This process includes grinding up, dispersing, and dissolving rocks in the ocean to increase its ability to store carbon and quickly improve ocean acidification.

While Carbon geoengineering offers a plethora of benefits that may halt climate change, its methods can also have negative side effects. Many can bring unwanted impacts on the ecology of the ocean. Large-scale tree-planting would cause competition for land space for food crops, nature conservation and other uses. Public consent and approval of those who live in the surrounding area of these technologies may create barriers to its use along with questions over how to govern these technologies that have impacts across national boundaries.

Solar Radiation Management

Solar geoengineering techniques aim to reflect a small proportion of the Sun’s energy into space, preventing the temperature rise caused by increased levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which absorb energy and raise warmth. Some proposed techniques include Albedo enhancement, which is the method of increasing the reflectiveness of clouds/land surface so that more of the Sun’s heat is reflected into space. Space reflectors are also used to block a small proportion of sunlight before it reaches the Earth.

Just like Carbon removal, SRM has negative effects. The technology of stratospheric aerosols (used for global dimming) can prevent the regeneration of the ozone layer, contributes to acid rain, and has several health effects on humans. On the bright side, climate models have consistently shown that solar geoengineering, when used in surplus and merged with emissions cuts, has the potential to reduce climate fluctuations around the globe.

New Developments

At the beginning of 2020, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) had received $4 million from Congress and permission to study methods to cool the Earth. The Paris Agreement also seeks to limit a rise in world temperatures this century to less than 2 degrees Celsius (3.6 Fahrenheit). With this financial stability and support from global climate organizations, new geoengineering technology can be produced.

Currently, the latest geoengineering project is a Harvard University-sponsored project called the "Stratospheric Controlled Perturbation Experiment" (SCoPEx). It proposes a small-scale test using a propeller-driven balloon and would ascend to a height of 12 miles over New Mexico and then release 2.2 pounds of calcium carbonate. Because of its antacid properties, calcium carbonate will help neutralize acidic conditions in both soil and water, which will ultimately help global warming effects. This design is set to be released by June 2021, with the message to slowly build mainstream large-scale experiments that lead to more deployment of solar geoengineering.

Conclusions

Geoengineering is not generally successful as each method has its drawbacks and debates, but it is something new and innovative that holds many promises to alleviate climate change. Researchers say the risky, often expensive projects are crucially needed to find ways to curb global warming. Social interference with the climate system has been seen as an unwise and hazardous step to slow global warming, but with carbon emissions rising, plans to analyze and improve geoengineering technologies are gaining popularity as a possible last hope to save the Earth.

References

Doda, B. (2018, May 3). What is geoengineering and how could it help tackle climate change? Retrieved March 06, 2021, from https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/explainers/what-is-geoengineering-and-how-could-it-help-tackle-climate-change/

Harding, A., Ricke, K., Heyen, D., MacMartin, D., & Moreno-Cruz, J. (2020, January 13). Climate econometric models indicate solar geoengineering would reduce inter-country income inequality. Retrieved March 06, 2021, from https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-13957-x

Klein, E. (2019, December 23). The geoengineering question. Retrieved March 06, 2021, from https://www.vox.com/podcasts/2019/12/23/21029860/ezra-klein-climate-change-geoengineering-jane-flegal

Oxford geoengineering. (2018). What is geoengineering? Retrieved March 06, 2021, from http://www.geoengineering.ox.ac.uk/www.geoengineering.ox.ac.uk/what-is-geoengineering/what-is-geoengineering/

Pearce, F. (2019, May 29). Geoengineer the planet? More scientists now say it must be an option. Retrieved March 06, 2021, from https://e360.yale.edu/features/geoengineer-the-planet-more-scientists-now-say-it-must-be-an-option

Saenger, M. (2020, September 14). The Climate Emergency, Intersectional Justice, and The Urgency of Solar Geoengineering Research. Retrieved March 06, 2021, from https://geoengineering.environment.harvard.edu/blog/climate-emergency-intersectional-justice-and-urgency-solar-geoengineering-research

Temple, J. (2020, April 02). What is geoengineering-and why should you care? Retrieved March 06, 2021, from https://www.technologyreview.com/2019/08/09/615/what-is-geoengineering-and-why-should-you-care-climate-change-harvard/

Voosen, P. (2020, December 15). Geoengineers inch closer to Sun-dimming balloon test. Retrieved March 06, 2021, from https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/12/geoengineers-inch-closer-sun-dimming-balloon-test

Alimentary Canal

The digestive system is a two-part system, which is mainly formed in the alimentary canal. This is the open-ended muscular tube that forms the digestive tract between the mouth to anus.

Food is first taken in through your mouth and is chewed and mixed with saliva that contains enzymes. After it is swallowed, food moves down to your esophagus. The esophagus has specialized muscle contractions called peristalsis that push the food down into the stomach. The stomach is a muscular sac, it churns food and mixes it with acid and enzymes (gastric juices). It also secretes mucus to protect its walls from breaking down in the presence of the acid.

The food is then released into your small intestine through around the muscle at the bottom of the stomach (sphincter). The small intestine has 3 components: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum which all produce and receive enzymes to aid in absorption. All food is broken down in the small intestine before moving into the large intestine. The large intestine removes any leftover vitamins, minerals and water and contains bacteria to finish the process of digestion. The waste is stored in the colon until the body is ready to expel it. Finally, the waste is then pushed into the rectum and excreted out the anus. This 7-part system helps us to direct the meals and beverages we consume every day.

Accessory Organs

The second part of the system occurs through organs that produce secretions that assist in the digestion of food, but food does not pass through these organs. These three are the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder, also known as accessory organs.

The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum that break down proteins, it also makes insulin by passing it immediately into the bloodstream. The liver holds several functions, but its main job within the digestive system is to take the fresh minerals absorbed by the intestine and make all the numerous chemicals the body needs to function. Ultimately, the gallbladder stores and concentrates bile from the liver, and then releases it into the duodenum in the small intestine to help absorb and digest fats.

Common Diseases & Illnesses

The digestive system is also very susceptible to diseases and infections. Gastroenterology is the branch of medicine focused on studying and treating digestive system disorders. These researchers have found many symptoms can signal problems with the GI tract, including blood in the stool, constipation, diarrhea, and nausea. The most generally known disease of the digestive system is colon cancer. According to the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO), there are an estimated 53,200 American deaths from colon cancer yearly. Various surgical procedures are performed on the digestive tract, such as organ transplants that can be performed on the liver, pancreas, and small intestine. It is easier for diseases to occur in this system as most are formed from the food we consume.

Conclusion

Every part of our bodies is nurtured from the digestive system, your hair, skin, nails, body weight, strength, and overall health mostly come from the food you eat, which is why it is very important to take care of this system. Food that is not consumed properly will not have the right nutrients to absorb back into our bodies. This complex system is very critical in our overall health, and will continue to process food and drinks into smaller molecules of nutrients so we can perform our daily functions.

References

American Cancer Society's. (2020, March 10). Colorectal Cancer - Statistics. Retrieved February 20, 2021, from https://www.cancer.net/cancer-types/colorectal-cancer/statistics#:~:text=It%20is%20estimated%20that%2053%2C200,for%20men%20and%20women%20combined.

Cleveland Clinic. (2018, September 13). Structure & function of the Digestive system: How it works. Retrieved February 20, 2021, from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/7041-the-structure-and-function-of-the-digestive-system

IBN Clinic. (2016). Why is Digestion Important? Retrieved February 20, 2021, from http://www.ibdclinic.ca/what-is-ibd/digestive-system-and-its-function/why-is-digestion-important/

NIH. (2017, December 01). Your digestive system & how it works. Retrieved February 20, 2021, from https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/digestive-system-how-it-works#:~:text=The%20hollow%20organs%20that%20make,small%20intestine%20has%20three%20parts.

Robinson, J. (2020, June 21). Digestive system (anatomy): How it works. Retrieved February 20, 2021, from https://www.webmd.com/heartburn-gerd/your-digestive-system#1

Your digestive system - Digestive Disease Center. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2021, from https://www.templehealth.org/services/digestive-disease/patient-care/your-digestive-system

Bisphenol A

BPA has been an industrial chemical that is used to store food, water, and in epoxy resins. It can also be found in everyday products such as dental fillings, sports equipment, and eyeglass lenses. It was first discovered by a russian chemist Aleskand Dianin, and is considered as a high production value (HPV) as we need it in many of our products. BPA polycarbonate plastics are strong and stable chemicals that can endure exposure to high temperatures and help to extend the shelf life of many foods and beverages. In the 1930's, scientists had also developed it as a synthetic estrogen. Currently, more than 90% of the population has BPA in their bodies, mostly collected through exposure with food containers, air, dust, and water.

Health Concerns

In 2008, the possible health risks of Bisphenol A (BPA) made headlines across the globe. According to the National Library of medicine, there are various routes of human exposure to this substance such as oral, inhalation, and transdermal. Once in contact, BPA is metabolized in the liver to form bisphenol A glucuronide and mixes with estrogen receptors. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has found that 95% of human urine and 93% of children held BPA. BPA has also been shown to play a role in the pathogenesis of several endocrine disorders including infertility, advanced puberty, breast and prostate cancer, and several metabolic disorders including Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS). Some specialists believe that BPA acts like a hormone in the body, hindering normal hormone levels and development in fetuses and children. The Endocrine Society in Chicago in 2017 showed that Mice exposed to BPA during pregnancy gave birth to offspring with irregular brain development and behaviour.

Environmental Concerns

BPA can enter our environment either from chemicals, staining manufacturers, paper or material recycling companies, and diffusely filtering from waste in landfills. This affects the growth and reproduction of millions of aquatic organisms. Studies show that fish seem to be the most susceptible to BPA. While the environmental effects of BPA are negative, it is mostly due to the pollution caused by plastic, and not BPA itself. Plastic stays around in the environment for centuries, threatening wildlife and spreading toxins at an increasing rate. Since plastic is a common source of BPA, having it collect in the environment will lead to devastating consequences down the road.

How can we limit our use?

Now how can we decrease our exposure to BPA? The best solutions are to avoid food and beverages packed in containers containing BPA, including many plastic bottles and steel cans. As an alternative, use metal or glass storage containers. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) recommends avoiding heating polycarbonate plastic in a microwave oven, as heating can increase the rate of exposure to our systems. Although corporations are not expected to say whether a product contains BPA, polycarbonate containers that do are usually marked with a number 7 recycling code on the bottom of the package.

Conclusion

Until we can fully switch to alternatives, Bisphenol A will continue to lurk into our bodily systems, danger our environments, and create thousands of complications. In the future, BPA options may be valued more in the use of food products to satisfy the need for change, but will take longer for the chemical industry to eradicate this hidden toxin effectively.

References

Bauer, B. A. (2019, December 18). Tips to Reduce BPA exposure. Retrieved February 03, 2021, from https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/expert-answers/bpa/faq-20058331

Bpa news, articles: The SCIENTIST MAGAZINE®. (n.d.). Retrieved February 03, 2021, from https://www.the-scientist.com/tag/bpa

Brazier, Y. (2017, May 25). Bisphenol A: Hazards and sources. Retrieved February 03, 2021, from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/221205

Canesi, L., & Fabbri, E. (2015, July 28). Environmental effects of BPA: Focus on aquatic species. Retrieved February 03, 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4674185/

Konieczna, A., Rutkowska, A., & Rachon, D. (2015). Health risk of exposure to Bisphenol A (BPA). Retrieved February 03, 2021, from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25813067/

NIEHS. (2020, March 5). Bisphenol a (BPA). Retrieved February 03, 2021, from https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/sya-bpa/index.cfm

Why the Moon?

1. No atmosphere:

While the Moon having no atmosphere is a concern for humans planning to go there, it is a boon for telescopes. One main reason why Earth offers difficulty for Astronomy is that the atmosphere causes multiple refractions and scattering of light coming from sources like stars, which makes it near impossible to focus it on a fine point. Rather the star keeps flickering or ‘twinkling’. Twinkling of stars is caused by the atmosphere. To counter this telescopes on Earth use expensive corrective optics that try nulling the effect of the atmosphere in real time. To study the light from the stars most observatories often resort to studying slightly unfocussed images of the stars as a focused image would keep shifting.

The absence of atmosphere would also mean that unlike Earth, the long wavelength radiation above 10m-30m will not be blocked. This would help with better observation of radio waves of very low frequency.

2. Shielding from terrestrial waves:

Another problem faced by radio telescopes on Earth is the continuous noise of signals being emitted by artificial sources. Signals from phones, airplanes, television broadcasting stations and such always offer a restrictive limit to the wavelengths that can be studied by radio telescopes. Famously, Frank Drake, a renowned astronomer, mistakenly confused a signal from an airplane to be a signal from an alien civilization. The far side of the Moon offers complete shielding from all the radio waves that come from the Earth at all times, as it is forever faced away. When it is night on the far side, the Moon would also block radiations from the Sun. Adequate shielding is also provided near the south polar region of the Moon.

What Kind of Telescope Can the Moon Host?

1. An orbital observatory: The first kind of observatory on the Moon may be an orbital one. Like the Hubble Space Telescope around the Earth. This observatory will have decent optics, but would still match the best telescopes on Earth, as whenever it would be above the far side of the Moon, it would be able to study the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, that is invisible or inaccessible to Earth based telescopes. It would have the advantage of being able to communicate with us whenever it’s above the near side, and being an easier mission than an observatory on the surface of the Moon.

2. Observatory on the surface: Many scientists have proposed using the craters of the Moon as a natural dish for radio telescopes, like the famous Arecibo and FAST observatories on Earth. Arecibo and Fast have been built on natural depressions on Earth. NASA is also funding research on building a network of multiple small antennae on the far side of the Moon which will together behave as a single big observatory. A private organization backed mission named ‘ILO-1 or International Lunar Observatory’ plans to place a small optical telescope observatory on the Lunar South Pole by 2023.

What Should Be Expected?

There are many advantages and uses to come from an observatory set up on the Moon. The first would be radio astronomy. The broad range of untapped wavelengths that it offers to study would unlock more secrets to us. Another way radio astronomy would be benefitted would be SETI, or Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence. Moon would help us detect artificial radio signals that do not emerge from Earth and are not affected by our home’s radio noise.

Exoplanet research will also benefit greatly from an observatory on the Moon. With the atmosphere gone, transition detection of planets would improve considerably in particular. Our efficiency in other methods of exoplanet detection will improve too.

In brief, any kind of observatory on the moon would prove better than its counterpart on Earth.

Difficulties Moon Has to Offer

The major concern here would be the cost to put an observatory on in lunar orbit or Lunar surface. The idea for a lunar observatory has been up since the 1990s but the cost of such a mission has kept such ideas at bay. But very recently, with emerging private sector companies in space travel, and technological advancements, these costs have gone down a lot and we can finally discuss this topic more seriously.

Another danger would be from cosmic rays and solar radiation which would slowly affect the optics, and the material. Proper shielding and protection of instruments would hence be a serious issue.

The absence of atmosphere maynot be a completely nice thing after all. With the atmosphere gone, the frequency of micrometeorite collisions on the Moon is increased, offering danger to the structural integrity of the observatory.

The Moon is quite far too. At almost 3,84,000 kilometers, scientists will need to figure out how to transport materials, crews in times of need, and upgrades to the observatory. An observatory on the far side of the Moon would also need a relay satellite to communicate with Earth.

Conclusion

An observatory on the Moon would undoubtedly take observational astronomy leaps ahead of its current position. With reduced cost of space travel, this idea seems more practical than ever. But one must not forget that reaching the Moon isn’t as easy as it sounds, as we were reminded during the Beresheet mission, and the Chandrayaan 2 lander mission. The first step naturally would be to put an orbital observatory around the Luna, and study the results. This may be a dream to be realised sooner than expected.

References:

Douglas, J. N., & Smith, H. J. (n.d.). A Very Low Frequency Radio Astronomy Observatory on the Moon. Retrieved January 20, 2021, from http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1985lbsa.conf..301D/0000301.000.html

Michaud, E. J., Siemion, A. P., Drew, J., & Worden, S. (n.d.). Lunar Opportunities for SETI. Retrieved January 20, 2021, from http://seti.berkeley.edu/lunarseti/Lunar_Opportunities_for_SETI.pdf

Michaud, E. J., Siemion, A. P., Drew, J., & Worden, S. (n.d.). SETI from the Lunar South Pole. Retrieved January 20, 2021, from https://ericjmichaud.com/moon-south-pole.pdf

Strojnik, M., & Scholl, M. (2014, June 5). Extrasolar planet observatory on the far side of the moon. Retrieved January 20, 2021, from https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/journals/journal-of-applied-remote-sensing/volume-8/issue-1/084982/Extrasolar-planet-observatory-on-the-far-side-of-the-moon/10.1117/1.JRS.8.084982.full?SSO=1

The Super-Enzyme

In 2016, Japanese researchers discovered a bacteria strain that naturally evolved to eat away at a common plastic known as polyethylene terephthalate (PET). This was the first step to a solution for the plastic pandemic.

In 2018, scientists accidentally discovered an engineered version of this enzyme, known as PETase, that was able to break down plastic in a short span of time. After utilizing PETase with a second enzyme, MHETase, they found that it could break down plastic 20% more efficiently.

The New and Improved Enzyme

A French company, Carbios, created an entirely new enzyme after analyzing 100,000 microorganisms for potential candidates, including the leaf compost bug found in 2012. After two years of research, they produced an optimized enzyme able to deconstruct 90% of PET in less than 10 hours.

The scientists say that this new process breaks down any kind of PET, regardless of its colour, fibers, and other properties. They also managed to make the process stable at 72 degrees Celsius, which is close to perfect temperature for quick degradation.

Conclusion

Coronavirus is not the only pandemic; humans have been suffering from the plastic pandemic for decades, and it's only going to get worse. However, with the discoveries of plastic eating enzymes, many solutions have been presented to us. No matter if it is a modified or new enzyme, it is clear that there are methods that contribute to the end of plastic pollution.

Works Cited

Dangerfield, K. (2020, December 22). 'Matter of great concern': Scientists find microplastics in

human placenta for 1st time. Retrieved December 31, 2020, from https://globalnews.ca/news/7537031/microplastics-human-placenta-fetus-study/

Rigby, S. (2020, September 29). Super-enzyme breaks down plastic bottles in 'a matter of days'.

Retrieved December 31, 2020, from https://www.sciencefocus.com/news/super-enzyme-breaks-down-plastic-bottles-in-a-matter-of-days/

Snowden, S. (2020, April 12). New Enzyme Breaks Down Plastic In Hours And Enables

High-Quality Recycling. Retrieved December 31, 2020, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/scottsnowden/2020/04/11/new-enzyme-breaks-down-plastic-in-hours/?sh=3dc8ad815e4e

Treviño, J. (2018, April 25). This "Mutant Enzyme" Breaks Down Plastic. Retrieved December 31,

2020, from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/scientists-accidentally-create-mutant-enzyme-can-break-down-plastic-180968881/

Eyeball Planets: Physical and Climatic Conditions

Since the planet is tidally locked to the host star, the side facing the star constantly receives heat and radiation from the star, while the other side is in constant darkness. This creates zones of different temperature conditions on the planet depending on the distance away from the point directly in front of the star. This point also called the substellar point, receives the highest amount of direct heat and radiations from the star, and forms the pupil of the eyeball structure. Daily doses can be higher than the annual dose of radiation received by an average human on Earth (reaching up to 100x to 1000x times the level). As one moves away from the substellar point, the temperature reduces, and you enter the temperate zone surrounding the pupil of the eyeball structure. On the side away from the star, the temperatures reach really low, and water only exists as solid ice. The temperature always remains below the freezing point of water. The belt from pole to pole around this planet, between the icy cold and the burning hot sides, will have the perfect intermediate temperature where biochemical reactions can take place, and life forms can emerge. Under suitable conditions, this region can also form clouds. It is aptly called the ‘ring of life’, while technically is referred to as ‘the terminator’. Depending on their distance from the host star, eyeball planets can be of two types: either hot or cold.

Hot Eyeball Planets

Hot eyeball exoplanets lie closer to the red dwarf star they revolve around. The substellar point receives such a high amount of heat and radiation that all water is evaporated from it, and it is a completely dry desert region extending to the temperate zones. The dark side (the side away from the star) is on the other hand too cold. The temperature difference creates a wind flow system between the two extreme zones, and vapour evaporated from the pupil flows over to the dark side and condenses to form solid ice. As the icy layer is formed, after a certain thickness of ice, the underlying ice starts to melt into the liquid water due to the pressure of the ice lying over it. This creates an underground layer of water, similar to the water table on Earth. Eventually, this layer of water starts to form streams and rivers which flow towards the hotter region, where they again start to evaporate and become a part of the water cycle. At the ring of life, these rivers have the perfect temperature and conditions to support any life form that may emerge. The water cycle also forms clouds under suitable conditions. This network of rivers extending from the colder to the hotter side resemble the veins of the eyeball-resembling planet.

Cold Eyeball Planets

Cold eyeball exoplanets lie considerably far from their host, the red dwarf. The only place that receives an appreciable amount of heat from the star is the substellar point, while the rest of the planet is very cold comparably. Hence, liquid water can exist only at and around the substellar point, while the rest of the planet will be covered in ice.

This planet resembles the Jovian moon Europa, which is completely covered with ice with a subsurface ocean of liquid water. This eyeball planet will also host a subsurface ocean of water apart from the exposed water body at the pupil. Another difference between the hot and cold eyeball planets is that while the ring of life of hot eyeball planets runs from pole to pole along the vertical equator, the ring of life for cold eyeball planets lies around the coast of the icy surface and the liquid water region at the substellar point.

But there’s a catch! If by some way the liquid water at the substellar point freezes, there is no coming back from that. It will stay frozen for the rest of the future. This is because ice reflects a lot of light compared to liquid water and hence absorbs no heat at all, not enough to at least melt again.

Eyeball Planets: Research

In the March 2017 edition of the Astrobiology Magazine, a team of researchers led by Daniel Angerhausen submitted a study relating to the evolution and conditions of eyeball planets. Angerhause et al. proposed to start a project named HABEBEE, which stands for “Exploring the Habitability of Eyeball Exo-Earths”, in Brazil to research the conditions for life to evolve on eyeball planets based on simulations. They will use data available from current observation of red dwarf stars, and from latest findings on the physical processes on exoplanets discovered yet. They will vary the various parameters like the distance of the exoplanet from the sun, mass, size, density, magnetic field, and similar physical variables to see how they affect the possibility of life emerging on these planets. They will be using a similar simulation to study the evolution of life on these eyeball planets as the one at Brazilian Astrobiology Laboratory to study Mars. One of the major topics to be studied is the effect of the high level of radiations hitting these exoplanets. This study will be carried out at Brazilian National Synchrotron Light Source at Compizas which will blast ice with different amounts of radiation to see its effects. Bacterias from the Antarctic will be studied to see how they evolved to thrive there and will carry them to the higher atmosphere to see the effect of radiation on these bacterias. With the launch of the James Webb Telescope, scientists expect to discover one of these eyeball exoplanets because they are very theoretically possible.

The Vaccine

Vaccines help our bodies develop immunity to that specific virus, and all vaccines leave the body with a supply of memory cells to prevent us from getting reinfected. Currently, there are three main types of COVID-19 vaccines that work in different ways to protect our bodies.

The first is an mRNA vaccine. These vaccines contain material directly from coronavirus to give our cells instructions for how to create a harmless protein unique to only that virus. Once copies of the protein are made, all of the original genetic material from the virus is destroyed from the vaccine. It is recognized that the protein should not be there, prompting the T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes to remember how to fight COVID-19, should the person be infected, or re-infected, in the future.

The second type is a protein subunit vaccine. In these vaccines, there are harmless proteins of the virus that causes COVID-19, rather than containing the entire virus. Similar to the first type, our bodies will recognize the foreign protein and build lymphocytes to remember and fight the virus.

Lastly, there are vector vaccines. Vector vaccines are created from a weakened version of a live virus that is different from the one that causes COVID-19. The live virus contains genetic material from the COVID-19 virus - this is called a viral vector. When the vector enters our cells, the genetic material gives cells instructions to make a protein unique to the virus that causes coronavirus. Similar to the ones above, the body will make copies of the protein and the lymphocytes will remember how to fight COVID-19.

Conclusion

Globally, more than 42.2 million doses of various vaccines have been given in 51 countries. With new vaccines still being approved, there is great potential for this number to rapidly increase in the coming weeks. In the U.S., the FDA has currently approved the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna vaccine, with several others in phase 3 trials.

Although the number of cases are increasing, the amount of people getting vaccinated is also rapidly increasing. With this, we can continue to move forward with hope that hopefully 2021 will be much better than 2020.

Works Cited

Commissioner, O. (n.d.). Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine. Retrieved January 18, 2021, from

https://www.fda.gov/emergency-preparedness-and-response/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19/moderna-covid-19-vaccine

Commissioner, O. (n.d.). Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine. Retrieved January 18, 2021, from

https://www.fda.gov/emergency-preparedness-and-response/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19/pfizer-biontech-covid-19-vaccine

More Than 42.2 Million Shots Given: Covid-19 Vaccine Tracker. (n.d.). Retrieved January 18,

2021, from https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/covid-vaccine-tracker-global-distribution/

Understanding How COVID-19 Vaccines Work. (n.d.). Retrieved January 18, 2021, from

https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/different-vaccines/how-they-work.html

What is Betelgeuse?

Betelgeuse is a red supergiant star, located about 530 light years away from Earth. These types of stars are formed the same way regular stars are - after being born in a cloud of gas and dust, the hydrogen ignited in their cores fuse to create helium - however, a high-mass star (many times more massive than the Sun) changes more drastically.

After the hydrogen burning phase, it’s higher mass causes the rapid fusion of helium after the core collapses. The star turns into a red supergiant when huge amounts of energy push the outer layers of the star outwards.

As they age, red supergiants lose a large percentage of their mass out to space, therefore, while they are the largest stars in the universe, they are not the most massive. They are red-coloured due to their low surface temperatures.

The Dimming

Betelgeuse is known as a variable star, meaning that the brightness of the star has fluctuated over time. However, near the end of 2019, astronomers noticed a unusually big dim in the star’s brightness. Betelgeuse recently passed its magnitude of 1.56, and is still getting dimmer.

There are several theories regarding the dimming of this red supergiant. The first thought that came to mind upon this discovery was that the star was dying. Being a red supergiant means that a star is somewhat near the end of its lifecycle, and if the star is continuing to dim, it could mean that the star is ready to explode into a supernova. Since Betelgeuse is hundreds of light years away from Earth, we would not feel the consequences of such an event, other than a bright sky for several months. However, researchers were able to determine that the star is still burning helium, and therefore will not explode anytime soon. This theory, although one of the most common about the dimming, is incorrect.

A second theory, provided by the Hubble Space Telescope, seems to be more accurate. Scientists reported that the cause of the star’s dimming was most likely due to a large cloud of dust. The proposed dust cloud could have been created after a bright, hot blob of plasma was ejected from the star and outflowing expelled gas rapidly expanded outwards, cooling to form an enormous dust cloud. It would have obscured the view of the star, appearing as though a section of Betelegeuse has greatly dimmed.

Conclusion

In the end, it is clear that Betelgeuse is nowhere near the end of its lifespan. Although its brightness has greatly dimmed, it is most likely due to the creation of a dust cloud rather than the end of the star’s burning of helium. The next time you look at the Orion constellation, take a moment to appreciate the willpower of the Giant’s Shoulder to stay alive and bright.

References

Betelgeuse is smaller, closer, and won't explode any time soon. (n.d.). Retrieved December 17, 2020, from https://earthsky.org/space/betelgeuse-supergiant-smaller-closer-wont-explode-soon

Betelgeuse. (n.d.). Retrieved December 17, 2020, from https://www.britannica.com/place/Betelgeuse-star

Fraser Cain, U. (n.d.). New Telescope Images of Betelgeuse Reveal Details of Its Mysterious Dimming. Retrieved December 17, 2020, from https://www.sciencealert.com/these-pictures-prove-betelgeuse-is-still-dimming

McRae, M. (n.d.). Betelgeuse Is Neither as Far Nor as Large as We Thought, And It's a Total Bummer. Retrieved December 17, 2020, from https://www.sciencealert.com/we-were-wrong-about-betelgeuse-s-size-and-now-its-imminent-death-is-super-unlikely

The first written record of triboluminescence was by English scholar Francis Bacon in 1620 in his Novum Organum, where he quoted,“It is well known that all sugar, whether candied or plain, if it be hard, will sparkle when broken or scraped in the dark.” But it is believed that the Uncomphagre Ute Indians of Colorado used the light from quartz crystals through triboluminescence or mechanoluminescence much before 1620. The word Triboluminescence can be dissected into two parts, tribo- meaning ‘rub’ in latin and luminescence- meaning ‘producing light’. Which clearly explains what it is. But why does it happen?

Theories

There are currently two theories explaining this phenomenon. The first one deals with breaking of chemical bonds. According to this theory, when you break a triboluminescent material, like a hard sugar candy, to do so, you break the chemical bonds of the atoms or molecules in it. These bonds act like glue that holds the candy together, and when these bonds break, energy is produced. This energy is on the order of tens and hundreds of kilocalories. To put into perspective, one calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water through one degree celsius at one atmospheric pressure. This energy excites the electrons in the substance, and when they calm down, they release radiations, and when these radiations are in the visible range for us, we see them as ‘light’. The radiations can be in X-ray range too, like for quartz. The visible light can also vary in colour, depending on its characteristic wavelength, it can be blue for the polo or lifesaver candies (these contain a chemical compound called ‘oil of wintergreen’ or methyl salicylate, a flavouring agent, whose bond cleavage is thought to be the cause of the triboluminescence in the candy), or it can be orange like for Opal, or even white, as the one you see when you peel off a duct tape.

The second theory, which is a bit more complex, points towards a current due to a net flow of electrons as the cause of the phenomena. Substances that exhibit triboluminescence are or contain components that are ‘asymmetric’, meaning they have negative and positive charges that can be separated. When the structure is disturbed, like hammered, rubbed, or peeled off (as in duct tape). the positive and negative charges (the nucleus and the electrons respectively), separate from each other. In the attempt to rejoin with a nucleus, the electrons move or flow towards it due to attraction. Now since electric current is nothing but a flow of electrons, a net flow of electrons in the crystal or substance, causes an electric current. Now while moving in through the air gap created by the crack or fracture, or the air pockets in the minerals, the electrons collide with the molecules of air, (mostly Nitrogen), and impart energy to them, thus exciting them. When these electrons collide with these gas molecules, they slow down. And just like in the previous explanation, when these electrons calm down, they release radiations, which is seen as light when in the visible range.

Conclusions

We don’t know yet whether any of the above explanation is true or not, but nevertheless I found this phenomenon very interesting, and amusing. You can see this for yourself without any fancy equipment. Just hammer some polos, or more appropriately, Wintergreen Lifesavers, in a dark room (after your eyes have grown accustomed to the darkness), and you will be able to see tiny blue sparks if you look closely. You can do this to a duct tape too, just pull it off from its roll, and see what happens when you pull it off at different pressures and speeds. Triboluminescence has various uses, for example, embedding a triboluminescent substance in concrete can help expose early fractures and cracks in the structure using light sensors to detect the light. It can also be used to sense earthquakes in a somewhat similar process as above.

References

Dawson, Timothy (2010). "Changing colors: now you see them, now you don't". Coloration Technology. 126: 177–188. doi:10.1111/j.1478-4408.2010.00247.x

https://www.thoughtco.com/why-wintergreen-lifesavers-spark-in-the-dark-602179

Zeptoseconds

While not exactly being the shortest unit of time, zeptoseconds are the shortest timespan to have ever been properly observed and recorded. One zeptosecond equals 0.000000000000000000001 seconds, or 10^-21 seconds. This incredibly small time frame was observed when scientists were trying to figure out how long it took a particle of light to cross a single molecule of hydrogen. The time? 247 zeptoseconds, a much smaller number than the 2016 record of 850 zeptoseconds .

The experiment

To calculate this, the scientists used the energy of X-rays to ensure that a single particle of light (photon) could take out the two electrons from the hydrogen molecule. They observed the photon bouncing of the second electron out of the molecule right after the first, creating a wave pattern called an interference pattern. Since they knew the spatial orientation of the molecule, they used the interference of the two electron waves to calculate the exact time the photon reached the first and second hydrogen atom.

Conclusion

115 years after Albert Einstein proposed his theory, today’s scientists have reached a new milestone by recording the smallest time span so far using this theory. While this number of 247 zeptoseconds might change in the future, the scientists hope that this information will be helpful in quantum computing, superconductivity, and future advancements in this field.

References

Chow, D. (2020, October 20). Scientists clock the fastest interval of time in 'zeptoseconds'. Retrieved December 03, 2020, from https://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/scientists-clock-fastest-interval-time-zeptoseconds-n1243903

Pappas, S. (2020, October 17). Meet the zeptosecond, the shortest unit of time ever measured. Retrieved December 03, 2020, from https://www.livescience.com/zeptosecond-shortest-time-unit-measured.html

Zeptosecond - the smallest time unit ever measured - CBBC Newsround. (n.d.). Retrieved December 03, 2020, from https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/54631056

Zeptoseconds: New world record in short time measurement. (2020, October 16). Retrieved December 03, 2020, from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/10/201016090209.htm

One of the first methods for controlling smallpox transmission was through variolation, named after the very virus that caused smallpox (variola). In this process, material from smallpox sores, also called pustules, were given to people who were never infected - this was done by either inhaling it through the nose or by scratching the material into the arm. Eventhough this decreased the mortality rate, people still died from variolation and developed the symptoms associated with smallpox. In 1798, a true vaccine was created, capable of subduing smallpox.

Edward Jenner

Born in 1749, English physician Edward Jenner made history at the age of 47. Jenner noticed that milkmaids who had gotten cowpox did not catch smallpox, or showed any symptoms of smallpox at all after variolation. To test his newfound knowledge, on May 14th, 1796, Jenner took fluid from a cowpox blister from a milkmaid named Sarah Nelmes and inoculated it into James Phipps, the 9 year-old son of Jenner’s gardener. A single blister rose up on the spot, but James quickly recovered.

On July 1st, Jenner inoculated James again, but this time to the smallpox matter. No disease was developed, making this a successful experiment. In 1801, Jenner published his treatise “On the Origin of the Vaccine Inoculation”, summarizing his discoveries and expressing hope for eradicating smallpox once and for all.

Conclusion

Almost 200 years after Jenner published his work and discovered a vaccination, the 33rd World Health Assembly officially declared the work free of smallpox on May 8th, 1980.

Smallpox was the world’s first, and is still the only, infectious disease that was eradicated, making that moment one of the biggest achievements in international public health.

Although we are still battling COVID-19 in 2020, we can continue to hope that like smallpox, the novel coronavirus will also be eliminated, and hopefully eradicated, with the help of physicians and scientists like Edward Jenner.

References

Disease Eradication. (n.d.). Retrieved November 16, 2020, from https://www.historyofvaccines.org/content/articles/disease-eradication

Early smallpox vaccine is tested. (2010, February 09). Retrieved November 16, 2020, from https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/jenner-tests-smallpox-vaccine

History of Smallpox. (2016, August 30). Retrieved November 16, 2020, from https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/history/history.html

What is Space Radiation?

Radiation is a general term used for different energies and particles released by a source. When this source comes from outer space, the radiation is called space radiation. The three most common space radiations are cosmic rays, solar radiation, and van allen radiation. Van allen radiation arises in the Van Allen Belts of our stratosphere. Some examples of radiations are x rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet rays, cosmic rays, neutrinos etc.

How Are We Influenced and Protected by Earth?

As we evolved on Earth, our body has adapted to the gravity here. Our bones and muscles have adequate density and strength to allow us to move around under the forces of gravity of Earth. Additionally, the atmosphere of Earth is constantly protecting us from the in-falling radiation from outer space.

Space and Health

Living in space for a long period of time may result in unfavourable impacts on our health. Typically, astronauts stay on the International Space Station (ISS) for 6 months to a year during which their health, body stats, and vital signals are carefully monitored and checked. It has been found through pre-flight and post-flight health check-ups of astronauts, that the space environment has some negative effects on the mind and body.

Living in microgravity lowers our bone density and makes our muscles weak. In the absence of gravity, our bodies do not have to put an effort to move around. This causes us to lose a lot of important bone and muscle mass. In some cases, astronauts returning back to Earth suffer from temporary paralysis of limbs. Astronauts in space have also been found to have an increase of height, reduction of immunity, reactivation of certain virus strains, and greater chances of suffering from immunodeficiency or cardiovascular diseases.

Through twin studies done on astronauts Captain Scott Kelly, and Captain Mark Kelly, it has been found that there have been more genetic changes in the DNA of Scott Kelly who stayed in space for a year while his brother stayed on Earth. It has been reported that most of the other changes in his biology have since returned back to normal, resembling that of his twin.

Space travel can also increase chances of cataracts, cancer, and cardiac diseases in the astronauts.

In a study by Acharya et. al, published in eNeuro, an open access journal of the Society of Neuroscience, it was found that exposure to neutron radiation in space during missions to Mars, the astronauts can suffer reduced functioning of the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex, leading to behavioral changes, and problems with decision making.

It has also been observed that the pituitary gland of astronauts shrink in size after time in space. It isn’t just the radiation capable of causing genetic changes, and microgravity induced weakness, that troubles an astronaut. Prolonged time in space, away from family and home, can result in severe behavioural changes, anger issues, problems with crewmates, mental illness including depression and anxiety, and dissociation from the team leading to compromised performance during missions.

Why does all of this matter?

As humans begin to attempt landing on the Moon again, and then on Mars, it becomes necessary to consider how the bodies of astronauts will be affected during this time. While a journey to the Moon wouldn’t be very long, a journey to mars will take years, and astronauts will be exposed to much reduced gravity, and a very high level of radiation. Being millions of miles away from home wouldn’t help either. In this situation, making sure our astronauts are healthy becomes an issue of utmost importance. Understanding the effects of space on our bodies can help develop better shielding technologies, and more protective suits. Astronauts can also be trained better to be prepared for the hostile environment out there.

References

Acharya, M. M., Baulch, J. E., Klein, P. M., Baddour, A. A. D., Apodaca, L. A., Kramár, E. A., … Limoli, C. L. (2019, July 1). New Concerns for Neurocognitive Function during Deep Space Exposures to Chronic, Low Dose-Rate, Neutron Radiation. eNeuro. https://www.eneuro.org/content/6/4/ENEURO.0094-19.2019.

Lewin, S. (2019, April 11). Landmark NASA Twins Study Reveals Space Travel's Effects on the Human Body. https://www.space.com/nasa-twins-study-kelly-astronauts-results.html.

What is the von Willebrand Gene?

Our bodies have a gene called the von Willebrand gene, which provides instructions for making blood clotting proteins called von Willebrand factor. These proteins contain regions that are able to attach to specific cells and proteins during the formation of a blood clot. Platelets use the VWF in a special way to aid with blood clotting.

Hemostasis

The biggest known function of platelets is hemostasis, which is the natural process in which blood flow slows and a clot forms to prevent blood-loss during an injury. Platelets help with this process by forming the “platelet plug”.

They are called to a site of injury by the now exposed molecules of the vessel wall. The von Willebrand factor helps platelets stick to the blood vessel collagen - this process is called adhesion. In a process called activation, the platelets then change their shape into one with dendrites, meaning they have been activated by the collagen. These activated platelets release the contents of their granules, which contain numerous substances that stimulate faster platelet activation and call more platelets to the injury site. The platelets start to swell, grow filament, and clump together (also through the von Willebrand factor) in a process called aggregation. As more and more platelets congregate, the exposed blood vessel gets covered.

If the injury is small, the platelet plug can form within seconds and can stop the bleeding, however if it does not stop the bleeding, a blood clot will need to form. Once wrapped in fibrin, platelets help by shrinking to tighten the clot and draw together the vessel walls.

New evidence

Recently, there has been a lot of new research emerging regarding other underestimated functions of platelets. There are two suggestions. First of all, platelets intervene against microbial threats. They have been shown to demonstrate anti-microbial functions when they come in contact with various threats. For example, it was seen that activated platelets killed surrounding staphylococcus aureus, a germ that is usually found in the nose, and forced the pathogens into clusters which reduced growth rate. They have also been seen engulfing S.aureus and HIV, clearing the pathogens from the bloodstream. There has also been internalized bacterial species killed off by platelets, such as E.coli. When malaria parasites entered red blood cells, platelets were seen fighting and killing them. It seems that white blood cells are not the only blood cells that fight and kill pathogens in the body.

Additionally, platelets help with inflammation in the tissues. There have been many cases of platelet and white blood cell interactions, with the belief that platelets are not only recruiting other platelets, but also white blood cells. Platelets induce activation of dendritic cells during allergic inflammation, and could possibly be contributing to antigen presentation by antigen presenting cells. Antigen presentation and processing is the process by which antigens are ingested by an antigen presenting cell and then displayed on the surface for recognition by certain white blood cells. This helps the body remember how to fight and destroy pathogens.

Conclusion

Although Italian pathologist Giulio Bizzozero discovered platelets in 1882, they are still being studied and new functions are yet to be discovered. This just goes to show how complex human bodies are. The next time your body is fighting an infection, remember that there are small cell fragments working hard to fight off pathogens. They really are the hidden heroes of our bodies.

References

Ali, R., Wuescher, L., & Worth, R. (2015). Platelets: Essential components of the immune system. Retrieved November 02, 2020, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5096834/

Antigen Presentation and Processing. (n.d.). Retrieved November 02, 2020, from https://www.nature.com/subjects/antigen-processing-and-presentation

Boundless. (n.d.). Hemostasis. Retrieved November 02, 2020, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/hemostasis/

Boundless. (n.d.). Platelets. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/platelets/

Ribatti, D., & Crivellato, E. (2007, March 26). Giulio Bizzozero and the discovery of platelets. Retrieved November 02, 2020, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0145212607000793

Staphylococcus aureus. (2011, January 17). Retrieved November 02, 2020, from https://www.cdc.gov/hai/organisms/staph.html

VWF gene: MedlinePlus Genetics. (2020, August 18). Retrieved November 02, 2020, from https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/vwf/

Image from https://www.amoebasisters.com/parameciumparlorcomics/platelet-recruits

Hormones

A hormone is a chemical messenger that is released by the glands or cells in the body. It regulates cellular activity by sending signals to other parts of the organism and transmitting messages. The key to the functionality of a hormone is through the transportation of signals. Multicellular organisms have hormones: in many cases hormones are transported through the blood or other tissue fluids. Hormones tranduct signals by binding to hormone receptors on the cell-surface. A receptor has specificity, meaning it will only bind to a certain compound, defined by its chemical composition. The numbers of receptors and the specific hormones they bind to can vary from cell to cell. The hormones a cell responds to can also change, altering cell sensitivity and cellular activity by either increasing or decreasing the efficiency of a physiological process.

Mood-Altering Hormones

Hormones are used by the body to regulate emotions which often trigger other responses from the body. Different hormones have varying effects on human emotion. Conditions where an individual produces too many or too little of these hormones can result in influxes in emotion and behavior. A common example of a hormonal imbalance occurs among people who are diagnosed with hypothyroidism, a deficiency of thyroid hormones, and hyperthyroidism, too much thyroid hormone production. These conditions could lead to enhanced emotions like anxiety. While there are many hormones that affect mood and emotion, we will focus on the 4 main “happy hormones”. These are hormones that particularly elevate pleasurable feelings.

Dopamine

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter and a hormone. It is responsible for emotional responses from the body as well as motor reactions. It is produced in the frontal lobes of the brain from the tyrosine amino acids which is produced primarily in the liver. While dopamine is responsible for the feeling of pleasure, it often leads to addiction and a craving for increasing dopamine-release by partaking in activities that are more enjoyable. It is considered the brain’s ‘reward system’. Dopamine in excess can lead to mania, hallucinations and schizophrenia, while too little dopamine levels can lead to conditions like Parkinson’s disease.

Serotonin

Serotonin regulates mood and is often associated with depression. When produced at a normal amount, it regulates your mood, emulate feelings of happiness and help your overall well-being. The hormone is produced in the midbrain by using cofactors (non-protein components that aid in biological processes) to convert tryptophan amino acids into Serotonin.

Endorphins

Endorphins function as hormones and neurotransmitters, released most often during stimulating activities like exercising, fear, love, music or even chocolate. High concentrations of endorphins can increase pain tolerance, while lower levels of endorphins reduce emotions of pleasure or happiness. Endorphins are most often released during high intensity workouts, where they provide pain relief. Often terms like ‘runner’s high’ are related to the release of endorphins.

Oxytocin

Oxytocin is a hormone composed of nine amino acids (a peptide). It is released from the pituitary glands. The main function of this hormone is to regulate breast feeding stimulus and spasms of the uterus. Nevertheless, it has many effects on mood and is shown to promote more positive social behavior and

through this often some form of happiness. Oxytocin promotes feelings of bonding, love and trust.

Conclusion

The regulation of these hormones is very important in maintaining homeostasis and a biological balance. These hormones are fundamental for maintaining a positive mood and outlook. These hormones are most likely secreted in a healthy pattern in individuals who maintain a good diet and workout regime. Of course, this article by no limits explains every aspect of these hormones (and neurotransmitters) but hopefully we touched upon the main points and satisfied your thirst for knowledge a little bit.

References

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/how-hormones-work/

https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/05/23/how-do-hormones-affect-emotions/#7e2bcb064275

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/08/160831085320.htm#:~:text=Dopamine%20is%20a%20so%2Dcalled,responsible%20for%20our%20experiencing%20happiness.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4449495/

https://atlasbiomed.com/blog/serotonin-and-other-happy-molecules-made-by-gut-bacteria/

How Is Earth A Magnet?

Our planet isn’t just rock all the way to the center. If one has a very powerful and long drill to hypothetically drill a hole to the center of Earth, they will find out that Earth has three main layers. The layer we are on, called the crust, is formed from plates that separate our continents and make our seabeds. The crust is the outermost layer of Earth. As we dig beyond 100 kms we enter the next layer called the mantle. This layer extends almost 2900 kms deep, and is composed of mostly-solid hot rocks rich in silicon, iron, and nickel. The last layer lies beyond the mantle and extends to the very center. It is called the core. It is made of superheated rocks that are almost molten, or liquid, like lava. The core itself is divided into the inner core and the outer core. The outer core is molten rocks that have liquified due to the high temperature. The inner core is solid due to the immense pressure, but still super hot. These layers are iron and nickel rich.

As the Earth rotates, the liquid outer core rotates along. Physics tells us that a moving charged particle can create a magnetic field. The iron plasma (superheated liquid) in the core is composed of charged atoms of iron, called ions. These moving ions in the rotating core create a magnetic field around the Earth. The Earth’s magnetic field resembles that of a bar magnet, slightly off axis from the axis of rotation of the planet. The magnetic south pole of Earth is towards its geometric north pole, and vice versa.

Importance of Earth’s Magnetic Field

The Sun is always spewing particles and radiation in every direction. These have energies strong enough to cause electrical malfunctions in satellites, affect electrical grids on the surface, cause genetic mutations, and also affect our atmosphere. The radiation from the Sun can slowly strip off the atmosphere; without its atmosphere, Earth would be inhabitable. Earth's magnetic field provides us with protection from the Sun's radiation. Magnetic field lines of Earth create a shield around it which block incoming radiation from the Sun.

Where Do Auroras Come Into The Story?

The magnetic field protects us from the radiation by accelerating it away from Earth. But these magnetic field lines are converging at the magnetic poles of Earth, where they create a tunnel. The radiation from the Sun gets accelerated by the field into the tunnel and is able to bypass the safe cover of the magnetic field. Once inside, the solar particles, and radiation, interact with the atoms of gases present in the atmosphere. The atoms of gases get excited by absorbing the energy from the solar radiation. As they become stable again, they release the absorbed radiation as visible light. Depending on the energy of the radiation released, the color of the visible light can vary from red, violet, green and other shades. This also depends on the gases involved, as every gas releases a unique energy and hence a unique color. Oxygen gives off a greenish yellow or red light, while nitrogen releases the blue lights. The name given to auroras in the northern hemisphere is Aurora Borealis, while that of the southern hemisphere is Aurora Australis. Other planets with magnetic fields, like Jupiter and Saturn, also exhibit auroras. So whenever you get a chance to witness these beautiful marvels of nature, remember to thank Earth’s magnetic field.

References

Northern Lights. Northern Lights or Aurora Borealis Explained. https://www.northernlightscentre.ca/northernlights.html.

Brain-eating amoebas

Naegleria fowleri is a rare amoeba that infects people by entering through their nasal cavities. This amoeba uses water as a medium to travel up the nose and into the brain where it destroys the brain tissue, often leading to death.

This amoeba is found all over the world. In the United States specifically, the majority of cases have been from freshwater located in southern regions. This is because the amoeba likes to live in warm freshwater (lakes, rivers), naturally hot water (i.e. springs) and drinking sources, poorly maintained swimming pools, and soil. Notice a pattern? Well, Naegleria fowleri is a heat-loving, or thermophilic, organism, and grows best at higher temperatures.

Their heat-loving nature means that although rare, this parasite is active mainly during the summer and in hot areas. As many people enjoy swimming in the hot weather, cases occur more frequently. Just this year, several people died from being infected.

Effects of brain-eating amoebas

Naegleria fowleri can cause a severe disease called primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), which is a brain infection that leads to the brain tissues being destroyed.

Symptoms of PAM can begin about 5 days (or between 1-9 days) after an individual has been infected. Initial symptoms include headache, fever, nausea, and vomiting. After a while, one might experience stiff neck, confusion, lack of attention, loss of balance, etc. The disease progresses very rapidly, as once it enters the brain, the destruction of brain tissue can cause swelling of the brain. Death is a high possibility after 5 days from the initial date of infection (or 1-12 days).

The fatality rate from Naegleria fowleri is over 97%, with only 4 out of 148 known infected individuals in the U.S. (1962-2019) surviving.

Recent cases

Due to the temperature rise globally, Naegleria fowleri has started to spread to places that were not once considered warm. Two Minnesota children died from it in 2010-2012 — both cases hundreds of miles north from the previously reported northernmost case in America.

In 2019, there were 16 cases of Naegleria fowleri in Pakistan, two in Costa Rica in 2020, and several cases occurred this year in the U.S.

Additionally, new cases are reported that have been caused not just by swimming in freshwater. This year, a 6-year old Texas boy died after contracting the virus from the water supply. After being tested, it was found that 3 out of 11 water samples contained the amoeba. These positive samples came from a downtown splash pad play fountain, a hydrant, and a hose bib at the boy’s home.

Naegleria fowleri, although rare, is an extremely deadly parasite that are becoming more and more prevalent. It is important to make sure that you take the necessary precautions to avoid getting infected and being careful with water going up your nose and ending up with the amoeba in your brain.

Prevention

With the current COVID-19 pandemic, one should already be avoiding large crowds, especially at swimming places, but if you do go, ensure that you are safe, not just from COVID-19 but from Naegleria fowleri as well. Avoid going to lakes or rivers when the water is warm and the water level is low. If you still go, try not to submerge your head under the water or hold your nose shut.

Additionally, if you need to put water into your nose (i.e. for medical purposes), make sure to use only distilled, steril, or boiled water to ensure that it is clean. Don’t be scared about going into the water, but make sure to stay safe!

References

Feder, S. (2020, September 28). Brain-eating amoebas are thriving in US rivers and lakes. The problem is getting worse every year. Retrieved October 19, 2020, from https://www.insider.com/rise-of-brain-eating-amoeba-naegleria-fowleri-in-us-waters-2020-7

General Information. (2020, September 29). Retrieved October 19, 2020, from https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/naegleria/general.html

Kwok, R. (2019, December 06). Amoebas are crafty, shape-shifting engineers. Retrieved October 19, 2020, from https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/amoebas-are-crafty-shape-shifting-engineers

Naegleria fowleri and Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2020, from https://www.health.state.mn.us/diseases/naegleria/index.html

Villegas, P. (2020, September 28). Brain-eating amoeba in city's water supply kills 6-year-old, leads Texas to declare a disaster. Retrieved October 19, 2020, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2020/09/28/brain-eating-amoeba-texas/

Co-formation

This was the belief that the Moon and Earth formed together within close proximity to each other. In the dust of the solar nebula, small particles slowly combined together under gravitational force to create many protoplanets and protomoons. For this to be true, our Moon should have the same chemical composition and isotopic nature as Earth. Isotopes are atoms of the same element, which only differ in their number of neutrons.

Capture Hypothesis

According to this, our Moon was a rogue body moving around the solar system and was captured by Earth as it flew close. This is the case for the moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos. Similar processes have taken place for gas giants. Evidence for this theory includes a different chemical composition between the Moon and Earth. Based on this theory, the two of them must have formed in different parts of the solar, therefore, it is very rare for them to have similar properties.

Fission Hypothesis

The idea was that during the protoplanetary stages, Earth was very hot, and spun fast enough for centrifugal forces to create a bulge on one end of the Earth. This bulge slowly separated out from the main Earth and formed a separate body, our Moon. In this scenario, Earth and Moon would again have similar properties, and the Moon would be slowly moving away

Apollo Missions and Lunar Wisdom

With the success of the Apollo missions, astronauts were able to bring samples directly from the Moon back to Earth. Scientists found that compared to Earth, the Moon shared a lot of isotopic similarity. The difference was smaller than 4 parts in a million. But the iron content on the Moon was less compared to Earth. The Moon either lacks a core or has one that is small and iron deficient. The differences in core properties disproved the co-formation theory. Additionally, due to the similarities of oxygen isotopes as well as the similarities in properties of rocks in the basaltic plains of the Moon compared to the rocks on Earth, Capture theory was also disproven. Based on the size of the Moon, which makes it the biggest natural satellite compared to the size of the host planet. A new more successful theory was suggested, the Grand Impact Hypothesis.

Grand Impact Hypothesis

Based on the size of the Moon, and the total angular momentum of Earth-Moon, which has not changed much since 4.5 billion years, suggested that the Moon was formed when a body the size of Mars, named Theia, collided tangentially with Earth. The debris from the body and Earth slowly formed a ring around our planet. This ring combined to form our present day Moon. Research of simulations of this scenario show that considerable material from this collision is lost to Jupiter, Venus, Mars, and some back to Earth. While it supports the isotopic similarities, it raises the question of why is Moon so much like Earth. Theoretically, it should contain 60% of the material from Theia too. The chances that Theia was chemically similar to Earth were very unlikely, but possible if Theia had formed somewhere close. This collision would have stripped material from Earth’s crust and mantle, thus explaining the low iron content. But very recently, using LRO’s data, it has been found that the Moon has more iron and nickel content than previously thought, thus challenging our understanding once again. A modified version of this is the multiple impact hypothesis, where instead of one huge impact, many small ones (which were common during the late bombardment period) created the Moon.

With more informative data from future missions and better simulations, we should achieve a better understanding of the Moon. According to a paper published in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, sub km debris from similar impacts can be detected in young stellar systems with planetary discs, through Spitzer like telescopes.

References

Jackson A. P., Wyatt M. C. (2012). Debris from terrestrial planet formation: the Moon-forming collision, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Volume 425, Issue 1, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21546.x

Canup, R., Asphaug, E. Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of the Earth's formation. Nature 412, 708–712 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1038/35089010]

The Center for Disease Control (CDC) has strongly recommended for those who have been exposed to COVID-19 to practice self-quarantine for at least 2 weeks. The act of quarantine has been effective in decreasing rates of infection during the 2003 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) Outbreak and the 2014 Ebola outbreak, hence why health officials place such emphasis on quarantining during the COVID-19 outbreak.

What is Quarantine, and What is the Difference Between Isolation and Quarantine?

Frequently, it is difficult for people to understand the differences between quarantine and isolation. They have very similar definitions and purposes. They both serve as public health measures in order to contain the disease and prevent exposure to infected people.

People who have been exposed to a contagious disease should practice self-quarantine. For the recommended quarantine duration, observations should be made to see if the quarantined individual is truly ill. These people may not know that they were exposed, or they may have the disease and do not show any symptoms. In the worst-case scenario, if the quarantined individual becomes infectious, we would be certain that they did not spread the disease as they were isolated prior to becoming infectious. On the other hand, isolation is the separation of already sick individuals from healthy individuals. It is less effective compared to quarantine as the infectious individual might have come in contact with others prior to isolation.

What are the Potential Psychological Effects of Quarantine?

During quarantine, an individual’s activities are limited and their daily routine is most likely disrupted. There are potential risks to quarantining, such as the increase in psychological distress and deterioration of your mental health. Elements contributing to the increased psychological distress may include the lack of social interactions with family and friends, the fear of contracting COVID-19, and boredom. The consequences of quarantine may present themselves in the form of constant exhaustion, anxiety, detachment to others, irritability, insomnia, poor concentration, indecisiveness, reluctance to work, and deterioration of work performance.

In 2003, a study was published that examined the psychological impacts of the SARS quarantine. The Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R) and Center for Epidemiology Studies-Depressive Scale (CES-D) was used to quantify the psychological distress of 129 individuals who have been in quarantine. The results collected from the sample was compared to the average IES-R score of wartime journalists and the average CES-D score of depressed patients. The comparison showed that more than 30% of the sample had PTSD symptoms (IES-R score > wartime journalists) as well as depressive symptoms (CES-D score > depressive patients).

According to Hawryluck et al, healthcare worker status, combined annual income, age, and level of education did not correlate with the prevalence of PTSD or depressive symptoms. However, Chatterjee et al. presented contradicting information, arguing that “[healthcare workers experience] increased anger, annoyance, fear, frustration, guilt, helplessness, isolation, loneliness, nervousness, sadness, worry, and were less happy”. Additionally, it was found that PTSD and depressive symptoms would be more severe as quarantine duration increased. Thus, it is crucial to maintain and monitor your mental health as quarantine continues into 2021. In some cases, infectious control measures such as wearing a mask or taking one’s own temperature would increase anxiety. Individuals from the Hawryluck et al. experiment would often express discomfort in performing such tasks, stating that, “taking temperatures was mentally difficult” and “taking my temperature made my heart feel like it was going to pound out of my chest each time”.

Prevention of Potential Psychological Effects

Taking care of your emotional health is just as important as your physical well-being. There are numerous healthy methods to cope with stress that individuals may experience during quarantine. Getting enough sleep, eating well-balanced meals, exercising, and keeping track of mental health are a few of the ways to improve emotional health. Yoga and meditation are also strongly recommended as it calms the mind and diminishes anxiety. It is important to take the time to unwind and do things that are relaxing and fun in order to distract yourself from unfavorable situations. Overall, quarantine is essential in preventing the spread of diseases. Although there are various stressors associated with quarantine, they can be prevented and reduced in a number of ways.

References

6 Concrete Ways to Improve Your Emotional Health (2020, January 01). Retrieved September 14, 2020 from www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/emotion-information/202001/6-concrete-ways-improve-your-emotional-health.

SARS Control and Psychological Effects of Quarantine (2004, July 10). PubMed Central (PMC). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3323345/

Epidemics, Quarantine, and Mental Health (2020, April 22). Retrieved September 14, 2020 from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7176378/

Nowadays, antibiotics are one of the most commonly prescribed drugs in the United States, amounting to more than 800 prescriptions for every 1000 people in 2018. In Canada, 65 percent of antibiotic prescriptions are prescribed by general practitioners, 22 percent by dentists and pharmacists, and 13 percent by specialists (dermatologists, pediatricians, etc.). Other than its uses as a prescription drug, antibiotics also play a major role in safely facilitating surgery, chemotherapy, organ transplants, and other invasive procedures. In fact, without antibiotics, minimally invasive and routine procedures may lead to life-threatening infections.

How Do Antibiotics Work?

Antibiotics are mainly separated into two categories: bactericidal and bacteriostatic. These antibiotics work to either kill bacteria or inhibit their growth respectively. These goals are accomplished in various ways depending on the specific antibiotic. For example, penicillin and polymyxin are bactericidal antibiotics because they cause the target bacteria to die by compromising its cell wall or cell membrane. In contrast, rifamycin and tetracycline are bacteriostatic antibiotics because they only inhibit the ability for bacteria to grow and reproduce by targeting core processes such as transcription or translation.

Something important to note is that antibiotics only target bacterial infections and are ineffective against viruses. Viruses often inject their DNA into host cells within the body to replicate and grow. These host cells are not targeted by antibiotics as they are incapable of recognizing whether a body cell is healthy or compromised. Additionally, bactericidal antibiotics are incapable of killing viruses as they have no cell wall.

Antibiotic Side Effects

Although rare, these miracle drugs can put you at risk of developing some side effects. The most common ones include those that are caused by a weakened microbiome in your digestive system (ex. diarrhea). The probiotics in your gut help you digest food and absorb nutrients. However, they are also susceptible to being targeted by broad-spectrum antibiotics that hinder many types of harmful bacteria in your body. When this happens, the microbiome in your gut will be thrown off balance, causing you to feel unwell. Finally, frequent use of antibiotics may lead to forms of antibiotic resistance, which leaves antibiotics ineffective against certain bacteria.

Works Cited

About Antibiotic Use. (2019, October 30). Retrieved September 08, 2020, from https://www.cdc.gov/antibiotic-use/community/about/index.html

Nessim, N. (2019, January 15). Antibiotics in 2019: Everything You Need to Know. Retrieved September 08, 2020, from https://www.solvhealth.com/blog/antibiotics-everything-you-need-to-know

The Innate Immune System

The innate immune system is the body’s first line of defense. It can also be referred to as the “non-specific” immune system because it reacts to all pathogens in the same way. The first defense mechanisms of the innate immune system are the skin and mucous membranes. The skin and mucous membranes are physically impermeable, meaning that they do not allow for any substances to pass through. Other than physical properties, there are also chemical properties that discourage the establishment of pathogens. For example, the fungistatic properties¹ of sebum (the oil on your skin), and its low pH, help inhibit microbial growth on your skin. Additionally, your sweat, tears, and body secretions have similar effects. The second line of defense of the innate immune system includes the chemicals in your blood and the cells in your immune system. Different types of white blood cells, such as mononuclear phagocytes and granulocytes, have varying functions in fighting off pathogens. On top of the many white blood cells in action, the complement system enhances the immune, allergic, and inflammatory response to pathogens.

The Adaptive Immune System

The adaptive immune system takes action if the innate immune system is unable to fend off a pathogen. Adaptive immunity involves the activation of B cells and the secretion of antibodies when pathogens are present. Unlike the innate immune system, the adaptive immune system is specific to a single pathogen. This specificity exists because the adaptive immune system “remembers” a pathogen, allowing the body to fight it off more quickly, efficiently, and effectively the next time that it is detected.

Adaptive immunity is composed of three parts: the T lymphocytes (T cells), the B lymphocytes (B cells), and antibodies. T cells are produced in bone marrow, but they eventually travel through the bloodstream to mature in the thymus. There are 3 types of T lymphocytes: helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells, and memory T cells. Helper T cells alert other cells in the immune system, cytotoxic T cells help detect infected cells, and memory T cells “remember” pathogens.

B cells are activated by helper T cells and produce a large number of antibodies that get released into the bloodstream. Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins that bind to infected cells and inactivate pathogens. This is possible because of the protein markers that are specific to a given virus or bacteria. As a result, antibodies can attack and destroy various pathogens without causing harm to other cells. Finally, antibodies can also neutralize toxins and render microorganisms immobile, all while supporting the innate immune system.

¹ Properties that inhibit the growth of fungi

Works Cited

The Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems (2020, July 30). Retrieved September 2, 2020 from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279396/.

Recently, COVID-19 became a concern for public health officials in many countries. It has impacted over 24 million people across the globe, and that number continues to grow every day. Currently, quarantine and social distancing are the few methods that can effectively control the number of new cases. The issue, however, is that both solutions are temporary because they negatively impact daily activities. For us to truly win the fight against COVID-19, governments have invested a large amount of time and resources with the hopes of creating a vaccine that can reduce the spread of the disease. If such a vaccine is discovered, it will decrease the infection rate and allow us to go about our lives normally without any restrictions.

How Vaccines Work

Vaccines play an important role in keeping us healthy. They are made using parts of a bacteria or virus, and they can even be made using a weakened or dead form of a microbe! Once the vaccine enters your body, the body is tricked into believing that the weakened/dead microbe is an actual pathogen, and your immune system seeks to destroy it. After your immune system destroys the microbe, it remembers the microbe, so that the next time you are exposed to the same pathogen, your body can fend it off before it gets you sick! Remember, though, that vaccines contain a weakened/dead microbe, so it is unlikely to make you ill!

Myths Surrounding Vaccines

While vaccines have proven to be extremely effective and useful, numerous myths still revolve around the subject. Public health officials and physicians have been combatting misbeliefs about vaccine safety for a long time. One of the misconceptions was inculcated by Andrew Wakefield, a British doctor, who believed vaccines to be the cause of autism﹣a disorder that affects one’s ability to communicate and interact. After the completion of several major studies, no link between vaccines and the likelihood of developing autism was found. Since there was no connection between vaccines and autism, this myth was proven inaccurate.

Works Cited

What are Vaccines and How Do They Work? (2019, October 29). Retrieved August 28, 2020, from https://kidsboostimmunity.com/what-are-vaccines-and-how-do-they-work

Vaccine Basics. (n.d.). Retrieved August 28, 2020, from http://www.vaccines.gov/basics