PATRIOTISM AND THE PRESS

Tyler Rupiper

The United States is a strong nation backed by an equally supportive and rugged citizenship, not known to back down or bend to attacks. President Roosevelt demonstrated the steely character of Americans in his 1941 address to the nation following the December 7th attack on Pearl Harbor. Roosevelt stated that “No matter how long it may take us to overcome this premeditated invasion, the American people in their righteous might will win through to absolute victory.” During the attack on the Oahu-based U.S naval installation, Japanese planes targeted U.S facilities, ships, and personnel. The attack left hundreds of navy personnel dead and multiple ships badly damaged or sunk. Flash-forward 59-years and ten months to September 11th, 2001, the United States experienced a similarly devastating assault on its citizens and soil. On September 11th, the World Trade Center was attacked by two hijacked airliners, first American Airlines Flight 11 struck the north tower, and moments later, United Airlines Flight 175 struck the south tower. A third hijacked plane, American Airlines Flight 77, targeted the Pentagon and impacted against the west wall of the military facility. While both days of infamy weighed heavily on America and were inflicted on it through cowardice and surprise, these disasters also demonstrated the character of the nation. The attacks defined America, not by what it lost to its enemies, but through its will to rebuild, unify, and achieve retribution.

Starting in 1941, the United States Navy had stationed many of its warships at Pearl Harbor, “For the first time since July 4th, all the battleships were in port at once.” The island of Oahu was calm on the night of the sixth of December, neither military or civilian personnel suspected that the Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi was sitting 320-miles to the north of Pearl Harbor. On the subsequent day at 07:55, Japanese planes moved to attack their targets on Oahu. In their attack, the Japanese not only bombed and torpedoed the fleet based in Pearl Harbor, but attacked civilian areas near the base. The planes were identified as Japanese by witnesses to the attack, “the Rising Sun emblem of Japan, was seen on plane wingtips.”

The beleaguered U.S. defenders responded quickly to the attack, ordering civilians off of the streets and into shelter. As bombs rained down amongst the waves, seamen returned fire at the Japanese bombers attempting to destroy their fleet. The “First indication of the raid came shortly before 08:00 this morning when anti-aircraft guns around Pearl Harbor began sending up a thunderous barrage.” The attack on Pearl Harbor killed 2,403 United States servicemen and resulted in the deaths of 68 civilians, who were massacred by the soldiers of the Rising Sun. The gruesome attack destroyed 3 U.S. Navy ships, including 2 battleships, and damaged an additional 16 ships. It took the U.S. Navy two full years to complete repairs on the damaged vessels.  The U.S. Census Bureau report on the attack noted that “The battleship Arizona remains sunken in Pearl Harbor with its crew onboard. Half of the dead at Pearl Harbor were on the Arizona. A United States flag flies above the sunken battleship, which serves as a memorial to all Americans who died in the attack.” The attack of Pearl Harbor was not a mere skirmish, but an indefensible act of aggression which sealed the United States into a declaration of war against the Japanese Empire, officially engaging the United States in World War II. 

The rapid growth of Imperial Japan could have been to blame for these attacks, or at least to blame for brinkmanship that ultimately led the United States to declare war on Japan. As Imperial Japan expanded and developed as a nation during the 20th century, the country hungered for the resources of its neighbors within Asia and the Pacific. The interests of Japan and the United States did not come into conflict until 1931. The break in relations occurred when, “Japan took its first step toward building a Japanese empire in eastern Asia by invading Manchuria, a fertile, resource-rich province in northern China.”

Prior to 1941, the United States government, and many respectable U.S. companies, sold oil and other military supplies to both Japan and Great Britain. While President Roosevelt had placed an embargo on Japan and cut off shipments of military supplies to the nation in 1940,  Japan was still allowed to purchase oil until July 1941. The partial embargo on Japan was upgraded in 1941 in response to Japanese actions. “In July 1941, Japan then moved into southern Indochina in preparation for an attack against both British Malaya, a source for rice, rubber, and tin, and the oil-rich Dutch East Indies. This prompted Roosevelt to freeze all Japanese assets in the United States on July 26, 1941, which effectively cut off Japan’s access to U.S. oil.” 

The series of aggressive advances committed by the  Empire of Japan forced the hand of President Franklin Roosevelt and resulted in the U.S. placing further embargoes on Japan. As the United States was currently supplying Great Britain, an enemy of Imperial Japan, and had cut-off Japan’s access to American oil, Japan decided to launch offensives action against United States naval bases and assets throughout the Pacific. Imperial Japan’s clear aggression ultimately necessitated Franklin Roosevelt to take action against Japan. “He arranged a White House conference last night, to address a joint session of Congress at noon today, presumably to ask for declaration of a formal state of war.” Newspapers on the eighth of December sang out to the citizens of the United States, bellowing of a declaration of war in retribution for the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the people of Oahu.

In Honolulu Hawaii, the December 7 issue of Honolulu Star-Bulletin was titled WAR in bold capital letters. Printed hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Honolulu Star-Bulletin encapsulates the events that unfolded earlier that morning. The Honolulu-based newspaper’s reporting on the attack, which was developing and matter of fact, left out a lot of bias or racial jargon, which would become common after the attack. Typically, the slur used for the Japanese attackers was Jap, but the Honolulu Star-Bulletin refrained from using slurs and instead only called the attacker, “Japanese.” Due to the early nature of the report, the paper also lacks information regarding the political developments that took place after the event, such as Roosevelt requesting Congress to formally declare war on Japan. 

The day after the Japanese attacks on U.S. forces, Americans were once again delivered reports of “WAR” titled in bold letters, this time on the mainland in cities such as New York. The New York Times reports on the issues, but unlike its distant Honolulu cousin, the New York paper thoroughly details the politics surrounding the war with Japan. The New York Times blamed Japan for the United States' involvement in the war, framing the conflict in such a way that Japan would be at fault even if the U.S had initiated the war. “Yesterday morning, Japan attacked the United States at several points across the Pacific. President Roosevelt ordered United States forces into action and a declaration of war is expected this morning.” Both newspapers have a few traits in common, as neither slanders the president for allowing the attacks to happen. Additionally, neither paper denigrates the Japanese for the cowardice of the attack they committed. The reporting was accurate, it was informative, and it let the American people know that they were at war. The reporting also helped establish December 7th  as a day that continues to live on in sorrow and remembrance within the American consciousness.

On December 8th, President Franklin Roosevelt addressed the nation regarding the Japanese attacks. “Yesterday, December 7th, 1941, a date that will live in infamy, the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.” Throughout his speech, President Roosevelt attributed full responsibility for the war to the Empire of Japan, mirroring the attitudes of many American newspapers. In his address, Roosevelt notified the nation that while there was no warning of the Japanese attack, and that it was not spontaneous. Roosevelt reasoned that due to distance and the method of the attack, that the Pearl Harbor attack must have been planned weeks prior to the event. Roosevelt made his point clear to the United States, and to the Empire of Japan, that this attack on United States territory was considered to have been premeditated and would not go unnoticed or unpunished. Roosevelt furthermore called for a coming together of the American people to face this threat, “I believe that I interpret the will of the Congress and of the People when I assert that we will not only defend ourselves to the uttermost, but will make it very certain that this form of treachery shall never again endanger us.” Unfortunately for Roosevelt and the nation, the attack on Pearl Harbor would not be the last attack made on United States soil, and it certainly would not be that last day to live in infamy within the American consciousness. 

On September 11th of 2001, the nation was once again devastated by an attack on its soil and citizens; hijackers from the middle-east attempted to strike fear into the heart of America by targeting structures that were symbolic of the United States' economic and military power. At 08:46 in the morning, American Airlines Flight 11 crashed into the World Trade Center’s northern tower. A flight attendant aboard the craft was able to send out a distress call alerting American Airlines of the hijacking. At 09:03 on the same day, about 15-minutes after the first strike, United Airlines Flight 175 struck the southern tower of the World Trade Center. After the second crash, it was apparent to the watching world that the crashes were not an accident but instead a deliberate attack. Later in the day, at 09:37 American Airlines Flight 77 was crashed into the newly renovated west wall of the Pentagon, the headquarters for the Department of Defense. The 9/11 attacks concluded when at 10:15, on the same day as the other three attacks, United Airlines Flight 93 was crashed into a field on route to its intended target in Washington, D.C. The events that unfolded on September 11th were well planned and organized, and the damage done was devastating. Four flights Hijacked by 19 hijackers, and worse yet, “More than half of the 19 hijackers were flagged by the Federal Aviation Administration’s profiling system when they arrived for their flights, but the consequence was that bags, not people, were checked.” Unlike Pearl Harbor, the September 11th attacks were not carried out by a warring nation, but by stateless terrorists who had sought to avenge their cause by striking fear into the citizenry of America.

The terrorist group Al Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden at the time of the attack, took responsibility for the attack on the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and the failed attack on Washington D.C. The objectives of the attack were “...four targets known to the world as prominent symbols of American prestige  and power.” In a letter addressed to the United States and to those who live within it Osama bin Laden further rationalized the 9/11 attacks:

You also are in need of men with courage and initiative like those of your forefathers at that time when they refused to allow one company to harm the interests of the United States, a company that had a monopoly on tea and its prices. Yet there now are many companies that endanger the United States’ economy, which continues to be vulnerable to collapse and they also formulate the policies of the White House. They threw hundreds of thousands of soldiers against us and have formed an alliance with the Israelis to oppress us and occupy our land; that was the reason for our response on the eleventh.

Osama bin Laden alluded to the United States’ demand for oil and accused the U.S. of letting businesses control its government, which bin Laden believed to be a contradiction as the U.S. had overthrown such companies during its founding. bin Laden also selected the four flights, all bound for California, because they were topped off with fuel for a long journey, making them significantly more explosive and deadly. “The worst damage came from the volume and flammability of the fuel rather then the structural strength of the plane.”

The next day, those who did not see the incident would read about it in papers with “Terror” plastered on their front pages. The New York Times is a fitting paper to use as an example of the responses the 9/11 attacks elicited, since the World Trade Center’s twin towers soared prominently in the New York skyline. The Times particular news agency accomplished two essential tasks the day after the attacks. First and foremost, the news agencies reported on what events unfolded surrounding the attack, including the feelings of terror and fear that flooded throughout the nation as a result of the attacks. Secondly, the news agency reported on what steps the administration was going to take and how President Bush was going to respond to this 9/11 attack, all eyes were on him. “His brief speech came after a day of trauma that seems destined to define his presidency. Seeking to at once calm the nation and declare his determination to exact retribution...” In times of crisis, the American people band together and draw their eyes and hearts towards the presidency to receive guidance and reassurance that justice will prevail. “The sense of security and self-confidence that Americans take as their birthright suffered a grievous blow, from which recovery will be slow.” News agencies portrayed the fear and frustration Americans felt and spread those feelings across the nation in an attempt to make certain 9/11 would not be forgotten nor forgiven.

The Washington Post also partook in spreading the fear and frustration Americans felt and made significant attempts to attract the attention of the Bush Administration. On the same day as The New York Times, September 12th, 2001, the Washington Post had already begun to speculate as to who possible culprits were. In one of the Post articles following the 9/11 attack it was stated that, “The U.S. government has strong evidence from multiple sources that the suicidal terrorists who carried out yesterday's catastrophic attacks in New York and Washington are connected to Saudi fugitive Osama bin Laden, who previously was linked to the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center...” Although time would prove the statements of the Post correct, the Post’s evidence behind their claim was mostly circumstantial and speculative. The Post speculated that Osama bin Laden was a likely suspect due to his involvement in prior attacks, including the previous attack on the Trade Center. The Post seemingly reasoned that the United States citizenship needed answers as to who was responsible, even if those answers weren’t based on fully substantial evidence. 

Hours after the 2001, September 11th attacks President George W. Bush addressed the nation. In his address, President Bush reassured Americans that the 9/11 attacks would not go unnoticed or without condemnation. Bush emphasized that those who carried out the September plot would face justice and that despite the devastation of the attacks, he believed the United States would remain standing and remain strong. Many news agencies across the country had their eyes on the President, and the entire nation was listening to his words of reassurance, “ A great people has been moved to defend a great nation. Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but they cannot touch the foundation of America...We will make no distinction between the terrorists who committed these acts and those who harbor them.” President George W. Bush did something amazing in his speech; he not only assured the nation that justice would prevail, but that America and its citizens would prevail. 

The attacks on the United States during September 11th brought the country together. When the Pentagon was attacked, civilians pitched in to help those that were still trapped inside. “After the Pentagon was struck, Secretary Rumsfeld went to the parking lot to assist in rescue efforts.” Another heroic story of American unity and selflessness, was that of United Flight 93. By the time that Flight 93 had taken off, both towers of the World Trade Center had already been hit. As the plane was being hijacked, passengers on board it were able to make phone calls to their friends and families. “Shortly thereafter, the passengers and flight crew began a series of calls from GTE airphones and cellular phones. These calls between family, friends, and colleagues took place until the end of the flight and provided those on the ground with firsthand accounts. They enabled the passengers to gain critical information, including the news that two aircraft had slammed into the World Trade Center.” Through their calls, passengers on United Flight 93 learned of the fate of the other hijacked flights and decided that if they were going to die, they would deny the terrorists their goal. The Passengers of United 93 fought through terrorists armed with mace and knives, overtook the plane, and were able to force it to crash into an empty field, foiling the plan of the hijackers.

Regrettably, the United States, as a nation, has experienced many days of infamy since its founding. On December 7th, 1941, the United States was attacked at Pearl Harbor, inflicting devastating casualties on U.S. military personnel. On September 11th, 2001, experienced attacks in New York and Virginia, costing the country thousands of civilian lives. Newspapers covered both the horrific events in vivid detail, while also informing the nation about what happened, and who was to blame. In 1941, newspapers announced “War” on every front page, letting Americans know that their country had officially entered into World War II. In 2001 the newspapers shouted “Terror” labeling the culprits as terrorists, and similar to Pearl Harbor, alerting the nation that a war was imminent and, in this case, a war on terror. 

After the attack on Pearl Harbor and 9/11 News agencies turned to the Presidency for answers as to what officially happened and to understand what were the next steps the nation needed to take in order to recover. In the case of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the United States looked to him to secure congressional approval for a formal declaration of war against Japan. George W. Bush was faced with a similar task as Roosevelt. Although instead of declaring war against a nation, President Bush swore to uphold justice and promised the nation that those who attacked the U.S. would not go unpunished. An administration’s responses to crises, and especially attacks on its soil, is a crucial factor in the fate and legacy of a presidency. In times of great sorrow and of significant loss, a country’s people seek the advice and guidance of the Presidency. Subsequent presidents can learn from the events of 1941 and in 2001, for when attacks are committed on such a scale, and fear begins to spread through the country, it is the duty of the Presidency to respond appropriately. It is the responsibility of the Presidency to pull the nation back together, propose a plan of action, react swiftly to further developments, and remember with great surety that the fate of their administration rests upon their response. As a citizen, while it is vital to place faith in emergency crews, first responders, and military powers to respond to tragedy, it is the responsibility of the citizens to support one another. These days of infamy were used in attempts by warring nations and terrorist groups to divide the United States and shatter the spirit of the country. Despite the best efforts of its enemies, the United States and the Americans that call it home stood together and realized that the nation was not defined by its tragedies. Americans realized that instead of tragedy America was defined by its willingness and efforts to recover from tragedy.