Timeline of French Political History

In the time leading up to the June Rebellion, France, and Paris especially, was facing extreme economic and social hardship. The city was in the grip of a cholera epidemic, and the price of bread had risen exponentially. Thousands of Parisians were forced to apply for food handouts, as many could not even afford basic staple foods. With disease, depression, and overall low morale, people blamed the government for their current crisis and rampant inequality. As one scholar writes, "Paris in 1830 had a fourth, perhaps even more, of its population living both physically and morally on the edges of civilized life - thousands were beyond the edge and most passed readily from one side to another. In this mass crime was normal - a kind of settling of accounts between the outcasts and the society that had no place for them. It was only another step to revolution - a mass settling of accounts." (Pinkney, 500)

Hugo paints the story of Les Miserables against this backdrop.

Traveling back in time to the late 1780's, a repertory of protest songs began to grow as uprisings in France culminated in the French Revolution of the 1790's. Some of these songs, such as the ones below, were composed specifically for these revolutionary events. These songs proved immensely popular, and have become a standard fixture in French song culture.

Others, such as the following examples, represent a more casual compositional process - crafting lyrics to pair with already-existing French folk tunes. This re-use of popular melodies worked brilliantly in the protest setting, as it allowed masses of people (mostly uneducated) to instantly join in the singing of a folk song they were already familiar with. This practice was quite common in French protest song culture, and created accessible, community-based music that encouraged involvement.

Two of the most popular examples of these were Ca Ira and La Carmagnole.

The following are two more examples of French revolutionary songs that were based on the melodies of pre-existing folk songs or childrens' songs:

The text of Les Miserables is filled with references to the song culture of the French Revolution. La Carmagnole, Ca Ira, and La Marseillaise are all mentioned, demonstrating these songs' ubiquitous popularity and Hugo's familiarity with the music of the time. Sometimes they are sung by a character in the book, such as in this example: "The brandishing of a pistol without a hammer, holding it in one's hand in the open street, is such public behavior that Gavroche felt his spirits rise with every step. Between the snatches of the Marseillaise he was singing, he cried, 'All's going well...' " (Hugo, 1072)

Interestingly, Hugo documents a specific example of the phenomenon of musical re-use in a section of the novel on Marius' grandfather. His grandfather was vehemently against the progressive revolutionaries of his time, and even disowned Marius' father for his revolutionary involvement. The grandfather and the society he mingled with were royalists, and according to Hugo, they, "parodied the Revolution. For fun they parried the original rage, wielding it in the inverse direction. They sang their own little ca ira:

Ah! ca ira! ca ira! ca ira! / Les buonapartist' a la lanterne!" (Hugo, 609)

Here, the royalists are mocking the bonapartists with a new rendition of their own song, using the same tune, but twisting the lyrics to fit their perspective. This parody of existing musical material is another example of the constant fluidity and flexibility of text and melody in French protest music.

"Songs are like the guillotine; they cut indifferently, today this head, tomorrow that one. It is only a variation."

-Les Miserables, pg. 610

There are about twenty-two written song quotations in Les Miserables, eight of which are explicitly political or mentioned in a political setting. (To see all eight of these quotations, visit the Song Quotation Index). However, only one of these songs mentions the specific tune it is set to, so what these songs sounded like exactly is a mystery. When I first approached the song quotations in Les Miserables, specifically those sung by Gavroche, I thought they might be direct quotations from popular songs at the time. Why else would Hugo write out complete verses and choruses to multiple songs throughout the novel? But as my research continued to turn up nothing on the origin of these songs, I began to read more on French protest song culture in general. I learned about the common practice of overlaying an already existing melody with new revolutionary lyrics, and how songs are often recycled and reworked to fit in a variety of contexts and cultures. This convention gave protest songs an almost unlimited shelf-life, allowing them to resurface throughout a diverse collection of uprisings, revolutions, and political unrest in French history. Meanwhile, I also stumbled upon this quote directly following one of Gavroche's songs -

"Who wrote this refrain that gave him the beat for his marching, and all the other songs he liked to sing from time to time? We do not know. Who knows? They were his own, perhaps. Actually, Gavroche kept up with all the current popular tunes, and mixed in his own warbling with them. A sprite and a devil, he made a medley of the voices of nature and the voices of Paris. He combined the repertory of the birds with the repertory of the workshops." (Hugo, 1070)

Was this the answer? Perhaps these songs were not transcriptions of popular songs at the time, but were rather Gavroche's (Hugo's) own creations, meant to be sung to the tune of a pre-existing folk or protest song. By including these lyrics in his novel, Hugo was continuing the tradition of French song culture. The readers of his time would most likely know exactly how to interpret these quotations, since they were familiar with the practice of adding new lyrics to old melodies. And as I continued to read Hugo's songs, I found more examples to support this theory.

One of the songs Gavroche sings is set "... to the old popular tune, 'Au Clair de la Lune' ", Hugo tells us specifically (pg. 1129).

There are a few obvious similarities between the two texts. "My friend Bugeaud" is almost a mirror of "My friend Pierrot", as is "To tell them my woe" and "To write a word". However, it is interesting that Hugo's song ends with the French onomatopoeia for the rooster's crow, rather than the phrase "for the love of God." In the culture of the revolutionaries, God was often replaced with the love of their republic, so perhaps the mention of the rooster (the symbol of France) is indicative of this switch. In 1860, a recording of Au clair de la lune was recently discovered as one of the earliest sound recordings (NY Times) - made only two years before Les Miserables was published. Clearly, this song was very present in the French consciousness at the time .

The second example of a Les Mis song quotation that does perhaps have a discernible melody is a song Marius' friend Combeferre sings as a footnote to their debate on revolutionary politics:

One reader perceptively identified that the text of this song is similar to the folk song Si le Roi m'avait donne, mentioned previously as the tune to La Guillotine Permanente:

Hugo's reworking of this folk tune allows Combeferre to separate "Caesar" (representing the king) from "my mother" (representing their Republic, or country). This wordplay provides a valuable insight into the philosophies of the students, emphasizing their undying attachment to their country, but not their king. Combeferre's performance of this song has a powerful impact on Marius, and he begins to feel himself drawn into the emotional fervor created by his revolutionary friends.

These two song quotation examples - one putting new words to an old tune, and the other twisting existing lyrics to change its meaning - provide hints as to how to reconstruct the rest of Hugo's songs. According to France's song culture at the time, each of Hugo's lyrics is most likely intended to be set to popular tunes, children's songs, or other protest melodies. The lack of specific instruction Hugo provides regarding the accompanying melody for each of these songs suggests that his readers didn't need extra information. Since Hugo was just following the cultural music norms of the time, perhaps it was obvious to his readers how they should approach these quotations. Because of this, modern readers are left with Hugo's limited descriptions, and are given vague impressions as to how these songs would actually sound.

For further research, each song quotation could be analyzed and matched to a popular song of the time, based on clues in its text and context within the story. Recordings of these texts with their probable melody matches could provide listeners with a historically-accurate idea of the soundscape of Les Miserables.

What role did these songs play in the world of Les Miserables' characters? And since Les Mis is historical fiction, why were songs like these important to the real-life characters of the 1830's revolutions?

The uprising of 1832, which the novel centers around, was led mostly by university students, both in the novel and in real-life. It is significant that none of these students - and especially not Gavroche - would have lived through the events of the original French Revolution during the 1790's. The political turmoil of that time took place before they were born, and yet it served as an inspiration and guiding light to the students as they launched their own protests. Reusing the symbols, melodies, and quotations of the '90's (and past eras) allowed the students to legitimize their own movement, identifying it with the same spirit that sparked the first French revolution. Crafting songs in the same manner as past protest songs - placing their own incendiary lyrics over established folk melodies or revolutionary songs - connected these students with the energy and passion of a prior generation, and provided a type of vicarious revolutionary experience, even though none of them were actually witnesses.

These songs also function as a form of communication and community-building within the students' clubs. After Gavroche sings the tune mentioned earlier (pg. 1129), students Enjolras and Combeferre immediately recognize that he is warning them. Protest songs could often serve as covert signals or warnings, as revolutionaries could disguise sensitive information in the symbology of the text. Another purpose of these songs was to create a unified vision, building community and a tightly-knit culture. Call and response songs like La Carmagnole, and "Drink With Me" from the Broadway Les Miserables, build rapport and collaboration between the students, meanwhile solidifying their collective philosophies through verbal affirmation.

Songs also build community through creating a sense of equality. These protest songs allow everyone to participate - regardless of age, gender, race, literacy, or financial position. A fitting example of this is Gavroche, the main singer throughout the novel and a "gamin", or street child.

Although a child, he is, in a sense, ageless. He often appears wiser than his years, belting protest songs with references to politics, philosophy, and everything in between. He embodies the spirit of a revolution forty years prior - singing about events he never lived through. This dichotomy of age in Gavroche is apparent in his role as the chief "songbird" of the group. Many of the songs he sings are most likely improvised by him (or someone he heard) over popular folk melodies. Furthermore, these folk songs are often childrens' tunes, such as Il pleut. Gavroche sings melodies most children his age were hearing at bedtime, and yet with lyrics describing bloodshed, revolt, and corrupt governments. Songs give Gavroche a sort of power and legitimacy, despite his young age. And in fact, this equality was a very important philosophy of the French Revolution. The song Le Chant Du Depart, a sort of "second" national anthem, tells of the ultimate sacrifice made by two young boys, Barra and Viala, during the revolution. Each verse is sung from the perspective of various demographics of people, such as an old man, a mother, a soldier, a young girl, and a wife. The verse sung from the perspective of the children describes how they, too, want the privilege of giving their lives for the Republic:

"The fates of Barra and Viala fill us with envy

They died, but they prevailed

Cowards crushed by the weight of years never truly knew life

He who dies for the People has lived

You are brave, so are we

Lead us against Tyrants

Republicans are men

Slaves are children"

The song's verses describe the "right" way each should respond to the revolutionary war efforts, implying that each plays an integral role in the Republic - no matter their age, status, or gender. The women of Les Miserables, too, are given a voice through song, with Fantine, Cosette, and Eponine each depicted as singing throughout the novel. Hugo's use of song represents the unique voice each character has, and the ability they have to change their society with that voice.

Hugo's song quotations also carry additional meaning for his readers. As mentioned earlier, it is likely that readers of Hugo's time would recognize the parodies and re-use of musical material Hugo creates in Les Miserables. The novel's content relies heavily on the social norms and cultural idioms of France in the 1860's, which is part of its difficulty when approached by modern readers. Without that context, much of the meaning and references are lost, and readers are often required to reconstruct Hugo's world in order to understand his novel. His use of song quotations is just another example of "common knowledge" that is now lost.

To Hugo's original readers, these songs also carry many layers of meaning. Seeing mentions of La Marseillaise and Ca Ira within the context of the students' uprising of 1832 shapes their perspective on this lesser-known event, and may subconsciously influence them to associate the philosophies and spirit of the original revolution with that later uprising. When faced with protest songs that are based on childrens' melodies, readers may be struck with the juxtaposition of innocent, child-like melodies with angry, bloodthirsty texts. The recycling of melody and text create a fascinating interplay, helping the reader to see both in a new light, and creating subconscious connections. Hugo's mixing of "vintage" (1790's), old (1830's), and current (1860's) musical material may have served to make a political point to his readers, suggesting to them that all three eras could benefit from the same revolutionary spirit. Like other authors of his time, such as British author Charles Dickens, Hugo was immensely concerned with the plight of his fellow citizens, and was a strong advocate for social change. He begins Les Miserables with this statement:

"So long as there shall exist, by virtue of law and custom, decrees of damnation pronounced by society, artificially creating hells amid the civilization of earth, and adding the element of human fate to divine destiny; so long as the three great problems of the century— the degradation of man through pauperism, the corruption of woman through hunger, the crippling of children through lack of light— are unsolved; so long as social asphyxia is possible in any part of the world;—in other words, and with a still wider significance, so long as ignorance and poverty exist on earth, books of the nature of Les Misérables cannot fail to be of use." (Hugo)

To this end, Hugo's songs and musical references serve as a call-to-action to his readers. Each one is a kind of allegory, reminding readers of past events in order to help them draw connections with the present.

Hugo's choice to include full song lyrics throughout his novel Les Miserables is unique among authors of his day. These song quotations encapsulate the French protest song culture of the time and the fluidity of re-using prior musical material or twisting the text to assign a new meaning to the piece. Within the context of the novel, Hugo's songs and musical references help to legitimize the students' revolutionary efforts, as they situate the events of the June Rebellion within the spirit of the '90's French Revolution. They also help the students to communicate, build community, and promote equality, giving each character - even little Gavroche - a voice. For Hugo's readers, these song quotations create new connections, associating the original revolution with the 1832 uprising, as well as with current social unrest in their own surroundings. Hugo's use of song in Les Miserables further establishes his reputation as an immensely perceptive author - he was both sensitively in-tune with the popular culture of his day, and also intimately familiar with the past of his country. As demonstrated in song, Les Miserables has become a timeless classic perhaps because it spans so many eras, and proves that the past is in fact inextricably connected with the present.