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Major electronics brands, including Apple, Samsung and Sony, are failing to do basic checks to ensure that cobalt mined by child labourers has not been used in their products, said Amnesty International and Afrewatch in a report published today.

The report, This is what we die for: Human rights abuses in the Democratic Republic of the Congo power the global trade in cobalt, traces the sale of cobalt, used in lithium-ion batteries, from mines where children as young as seven and adults work in perilous conditions.

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The glamourous shop displays and marketing of state of the art technologies are a stark contrast to the children carrying bags of rocks, and miners in narrow manmade tunnels risking permanent lung damage.

The report documents how traders buy cobalt from areas where child labour is rife and sell it to Congo Dongfang Mining (CDM), a wholly-owned subsidiary of Chinese mineral giant Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt Ltd (Huayou Cobalt).

Miners working in areas from which CDM buys cobalt face the risk of long-term health damage and a high risk of fatal accidents. At least 80 artisanal miners died underground in southern DRC between September 2014 and December 2015 alone. The true figure is unknown as many accidents go unrecorded and bodies are left buried in the rubble.

Amnesty International researchers also found that the vast majority of miners spend long hours every day working with cobalt without the most basic of protective equipment, such as gloves, work clothes or facemasks to protect them from lung or skin disease.

Children told Amnesty International they worked for up to 12 hours a day in the mines, carrying heavy loads to earn between one and two dollars a day. In 2014 approximately 40,000 children worked in mines across southern DRC, many of them mining cobalt, according to UNICEF.

The organizations are also calling on China to require Chinese extractive companies operating overseas to investigate their supply chains and address human rights abuses in their operations. The organizations say Huayou Cobalt should confirm who is involved in mining and trading its cobalt (and where) and make sure it is not buying cobalt mined by child labour or in dangerous conditions.

The method used depends on the type of mineral resource that is mined, its location at or beneath the surface, and whether the resource is worth enough money to justify extracting it. Each mining method also has varying degrees of impact on the surrounding landscape and environment.

Coal miners use large machines to remove coal from the earth. Many U.S. coal deposits, called coal beds or seams, are near the earth's surface, but others are deep underground. Modern mining methods allow U.S. coal miners to easily reach most of the nation's coal reserves and to produce about three times more coal in one hour than in 1978.

Surface mining is often used when coal is less than 200 feet underground. In surface mining, large machines remove the topsoil and layers of rock known as overburden to expose coal seams. Mountaintop removal is a form of surface mining where the tops of mountains are removed to access coal seams. After the coal is removed, the disturbed area may be covered with topsoil for planting grass and trees. About two-thirds of U.S. coal production is from surface mines because surface mining is less expensive than underground mining.

Underground mining, sometimes called deep mining, is used when the coal is more than 200 feet below the surface. Some underground mines are thousands of feet deep, with tunnels that may extend out from the vertical mine shafts for miles. Miners ride elevators down deep mine shafts and travel on small trains in long tunnels to get to the coal. The miners use large machines to dig out coal.

After removing the coal from the ground, miners may send it to a preparation plant near the mining site. The plant cleans and processes coal to remove rocks, dirt, ash, sulfur, and other unwanted materials. This process increases the heating value of the coal.

Some years ago my wife and I took a trip down the east coast, from Boston all the way down south. So during that drive, somewhere around the state of West Virginia, I got the notion that I wanted to take a detour and explore an abandoned mine. They have all those old coal mines down that way. So we stopped and I hired a guide to take me through a couple of these old abandoned mines.

So this guide takes me through a couple of mines. So my only experience with mines is what I know from those old westerns where the mines, the walls, and the roofs of the mines were shored up with timbers. And I was very surprised to find out that they still did that, at the time. Maybe they don't now, I don't know. But they did then.

So, I asked the guide what kind of wood they used for the walls and roofs, and the timbers we were looking at. Because I didn't recognize it. And he said he didn't know any specifics about how they built the mines, he just knew how to get in and out, and give tours walking through it.

I walked through a few other mines in the area and they all seemed to have the same sort of wood used in the tunnels to shore up the mine themselves. I would have thought they would have used oak or ash, as those are very strong types of wood. But no. People in the area said they thought it was the tulip poplar that was used. And apparently, poplar is the only type of wood they use to shore up these mines.

Now remember, this was a long time ago. So maybe they don't use this these days. But then, it was tulip poplar that they used. And the question was, why did they use that wood instead of something stronger like oak or ash?

This poplar wood evidently has the characteristic that when it begins to strain, to stretch, it begins to emit loud cracking noises which serves as a warning to the miners that a collapse is coming, and they have time to get out.

Uranium is a naturally-occurring radioactive element that has been mined and used for its chemical properties for more than a thousand years. It is now primarily used as fuel for nuclear reactors that make electricity. Uranium can be recovered in two ways: by conventional mining of the rock (ore), or by using strong chemicals to dissolve uranium from the rock that is still in the ground and pumping it to the surface.

Uranium eventually decays to radiumradium A naturally occurring radioactive (unstable) element that forms when uranium or thorium decay. Elevated levels of radium can contaminate water supplies. Radium also poses a risk when it decays to form radon, a radioactive gas.. Radium decays to release a radioactive gas called radon. Open pit uranium milling and in situ mining sites do not pose a significant radon risk to the public or to miners; the radon disperses into the atmosphere. In the past, the waste rock produced by underground and open pit mining was piled up outside the mine. This practice has caused problems, including on Navajo lands where more than half of the small, abandoned uranium mines from the middle of the 20th century and their wastes remain. Wind can blow radioactive dust from the wastes into populated areas and the wastes can contaminate surface water used for drinking. Some sites also have considerable groundwater contamination.

Underground mines can present a radiation hazard to miners. Without proper air ventilation, radonradon A naturally occurring (colorless and odorless) radioactive gas found in soils, rock and water throughout the United States. Radon causes lung cancer and is a threat to health because it tends to collect in homes, sometimes in very high concentrations. As a result, radon is the largest source of exposure to naturally occurring radiation. can collect in the mineshafts, where it is inhaled by miners. The operators of uranium mines must take special precautions to protect miners, such as pumping radon gas out of the mine and replacing it with fresh air. To protect the public near uranium mines, vented radon gas must not exceed certain limits. Sometimes miners are required to wear respirators that protect their lungs from radon gas. Learn more about the health effects of radon at Radon in Homes, Schools and Buildings.

Previously, waste rock and mill tailings were used in some Western mining areas as building materials for homes, schools, roads and other construction. Structures built with waste rock and mill tailings were radon and radiation hazards to anyone spending time in them. People traveling on roads made with waste rock were in danger of breathing radioactive dust. In response to these issues, the 1978 Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act (UMTRCA) stopped the use of mill tailings in building and construction projects.

The EPA relies on several regulations and laws to protect people and the environment from radiation exposure from the uranium extraction process. The Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act (UMTRCA) sets limits on radium in soil from mill tailings, in response to which EPA issued Health and Environmental Protection Standards for Uranium and Thorium Mill Tailings. The Clean Air Act limits the amount of radon that can be released from tailings impoundments and underground uranium mines. Runoff water from mines, mills, and ore piles is regulated under the Clean Water Act. The Safe Drinking Water Act sets limits for radionuclides in drinking water. Some uranium mining and milling sites are cleaned up under the EPA Superfund program.

Subpart B: National Emission Standards for Radon Emissions from Underground Uranium Mines

Subpart B of the National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs) protects people and the environment from radon emissions from underground uranium mines.

The NRC licenses and oversees the operations of mills, heaps and in situ leaching mines. The NRC rules for tailings impoundments are based on EPA limits. Facilities must prove they have a radiation safety program to protect workers in order to get an NRC license.

Each state has a radiation program that ensures the safe use of radioactive materials. Many states have signed formal agreements with the NRC to get authority over the licensing and operations at mills and in situ leaching mines. These states are known as Agreement States. Agreement States inspect facilities to make sure the staff is properly trained and that equipment is operating safely. e24fc04721