Math Anxiety: its Origins, its Impact, and Countering its Effects
By: Resha L. Hissen
Math anxiety impacts not only the stress levels of a student, but creates low self-perception and self- doubt, which, as a result, can compromise one’s cognitive abilities when thinking and reasoning about the subject. (Beillock, Gunderson, Ramirez &Levin, 2010) . It is not uncommon that students who suffer from math anxiety will describe their dislike for the subject all together (Jackson & Leffingwell, 1999, p. 583-586). Math anxiety is a “critical component in the number of years a student studies math, the extent to which a student can learn and perform math skills and concepts, and may influence student educational achievement and career goals” (Betz, 1978, p. 441-448). Those who have high math anxiety tend to stay away from math courses and math related career paths (Beillock, et al., 2010). Suffice to say, understanding math anxiety and how to reverse its effects is paramount to student success in the classroom and in future endeavors.
This Literature Review will address the problem of math anxiety and how to reduce and/or prevent it through the examination of ten case studies. The review has three subtopics: 1) the origins of math anxiety and the negative teacher impact, 2) fixing math anxiety and positive teacher impact and, finally, 3) predicting student success and the growth mindset.
Origins of Math Anxiety: Negative Teacher Impact
According to a study by Beillock, Gunderson, Ramirez, and Levin (2010), Math anxiety can begin as early as Elementary School. In the U.S, 90% of Elementary School teachers are female. Beillock et al conducted a study to determine the correlation between gender roles and math anxiety, with special regards to the relationship between female teacher’s math anxiety and their female students.
Twelve first grade teachers and five second grade veteran teachers from five public schools in the Midwest participated in the study. The teachers took a questionnaire during the last two months of the school year about how anxious different scenarios math related and non-math related made them feel. They also demonstrated their math knowledge using both the MARS (Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale) and the Elementary Number Concepts and Operations subtest of the Content Knowledge for Teaching Mathematics measure. Of the 117 first and second grade students who were allowed permission to participate, there were 65 girls, 40 first graders and 25 were second graders. There were 53 boys, 38 first graders and 14 second graders. Student math achievement was assessed during the first 3 months and then during the last 2 months of the school year using the Applied Problems subtests of the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement. In addition, students were also read aloud two gender neutral stories. One story was about a student who performed well in math and one story was about a student who performed well in reading. Students had to draw a picture about which gender they thought the stories were about.
Their results indicated that a female teacher, even with years of experience, who was not proficient in math and/or had math anxiety or math avoidance, would inadvertently transfer their anxiety to their students, especially the girls. The girls, looking to someone of their gender as a role model and a reflection of themselves, were more likely, when compared to the boys, to notice their teacher’s negative feelings about the math and, in turn, develop the same fears. Female students were more impacted academically when their teacher was math anxious. The girls’ math scores on the Applied Problems subtests significantly dropped whereas the boys dropped a bit or stayed about the same. Moreover, when asked to draw a picture of which gender performed well in each of the two stories, most students drew a boy performing well in math and a girl performing well in reading. These results indicated a relationship between female teacher math anxiety and the scores and self-image of her female students. When a female teacher transfers their own math anxiety to their students, female students may develop math anxiety/math avoidance of their own and, as a result, internalize the idea that success in math is fixed and gender specific to boys. (Beillock, Gunderson, Ramirez & Levin, 2010, p 1860-1863)
Wigfield & Meece (1998) measured the relationship between math anxiety and math attitudes in grades 6-12. 564 students were chosen at random to participate in the study. Students were given MAQ (The Math Anxiety Questionnaire) to assess their levels of math anxiety.
The study concluded that students of all grade levels show similar signs of math anxiety. Nervousness, fear, and discomfort created negative reactions to math and the worry of doing well. Students with high math anxiety were overly concerned with performance. Such worry was correlated with the level of importance students gave to math. If students felt math was very important, then they felt enormous concern and pressure to perform well upon examination. Both the boys and the girls had equal concern about the importance of math but the girls had more negative feelings towards math than the boys. Math anxious students expressed little to no positive feelings about math or their abilities in the subject matter. ( Wigfield & Meece, 2010, p. 210-216)
Jackson and Leffingwell (1999) looked at the feelings one had towards math in grades K-College. Student teachers seeking certification in Elementary Education were given a questionnaire about their experiences asking about their worst or most challenging experiences with math during their educational career. 157 student teachers participated in the study; all participants were above average in their academics and were highly motivated to become educators.
Results showed that only 7%, or 11 of the participants, had a positive experience with math and the rest had negative experiences starting at different points in their academic career. 66% of the participants said that their first experience with math anxiety occurred in grades K-12. This was due to the difficultly of the math content, teacher insensitivity to subject difficulty, a negative gender bias towards women , and demeaning speech from the teacher towards struggling students. 27% of participants experienced math anxiety in College due to very similar reasons. (Jackson & Leffingwell, 1999, p. 583-586)
Nancy E. Betz (1978) conducted a study to determine the relationship between math anxiety and ability in specifically college students. 652 students participated in the study. Students were divided into three groups based on the classes one was taking; Math Group 1: Not college ready (50 male, 72 female), Math Group 2: Math, Science, or Engineering majors (188 male, 160 female), and Psychology Group 3: Non-Math related general education course (81 male, 101 female). Math anxiety was measured using a revised version of the Mathematics Anxiety Scale. This was used to assess feelings of anxiety, dread, or nervousness associated with math.
When comparing the three groups, about 50% of the Math Group 1 and 25% of both the Math Group 2 and Psychology Group 3 reported levels of anxiety, that math made them “uncomfortable, nervous, uneasy and confused.” (Betz, 1978, p. 441-448) Higher levels of math anxiety were related to greater levels of the emotional worry and concern about the subject matter. The males reported more positive attitudes towards math and greater confidence in their abilities to perform and to learn. In contrast, females had more negative attitudes towards math and did not have as much confidence in their abilities to perform or to learn. Females reported high levels of math anxiety than the males, with older women having more math anxiety than younger women. Age and gender were not the only variables that correlated; levels of math anxiety were found to be related to the number of years of High School Math taken. The more prior math preparation one had in High School, the less likely one was to report higher levels of math anxiety in College. The research also indicated there was a relationship between lower tests scores and higher levels of math anxiety. Anxiety was most common when it concerned a math exam. Higher levels correlated to lower test scores on math achievement tests and lower levels correlated with higher scores on achievement tests. (Betz, 1978, p. 441-448)
Fixing Math Anxiety: Positive Teacher Impact
Teachers can help alleviate math anxiety/ math avoidance with effective intervention programs, incentives, games, and mediation in the classroom. In a study by Rishi Sriram, Ph.D. (2011), a growth mindset intervention program was utilized by high risk, first year students at a large private university in the South West of the U.S. Students who have a fixed mindset believe that intelligence is innate and something one is born with. If one cannot change what they are born with, then any attempts to change this are futile and only can reinforce the idea that one was born inadequately. Students who have a growth mindset believe that intelligence is not inherent and not something one is born in with. One’s intelligence and ability will develop over time with training, determination, resilience, and practice. Students in the study were assigned to one of two groups during the 2009-2010 school-year. One group was designed to promote growth mindset. One group was designed to foster study skills. The purpose of this study was to determine if high risk students in an intervention program promoting growth mindset encouraged high levels of academic effort and achievement fared better than those in a study skills only intervention program.
The 105 participants of the study were first year college students who were considered high risk by the university. 66.7% of the participants (70 students) were female and 33.3% of the participants were male (35 students). All students were asked to enroll in a remedial course and to engage in web based activities to help them succeed. Websites were either taught study skills, or were a growth mindset website designed to teach students that intelligence can be improved upon. Students received a pretest before spending 4 sessions on the website (1 session per week for 4 weeks). Students also completed a posttest at the end of all 4 sessions. Each of the four sessions for the growth mindset group consisted of a 15-minute online sessions that encouraged the idea that intelligence was malleable. The sessions consisted of a quote that demonstrated a growth mindset from a famous person, questions to prepare students with a video clip, a video clip that showed an issue related to either a fixed or a growth mindset, questions to self-reflect about the video, a short video lecture on brain plasticity, a summary of research about mindset, and questions for next week’s video. Each of the four sessions of the study skills group consisted only of a 15-minute online session designed to help students improve their study skills.
Results indicated that students in the study skills group did not show any change in self-perception, effort, or a difference in test scores. This group showed no difference in how they viewed intelligence. In contrast, students in the growth mindset intervention reported higher levels of self-confidence, determination, and significantly higher scores from their pretest to their posttest. This group began to adopt a growth mindset about learning. That said, this study did not show significant academic achievement for growth mindset group. Though motivation, effort, and self-image changed for the growth mindset group, and test scores did go up from the pretest to the posttest, the scores were still low. It was concluded this was because students only spent 15 minutes a week for 4 weeks in their online intervention group that more time was needed to fully study improvement in academic results. Dr. Sriram concluded that if just a change in attitude and a slight increase in test scores occurred after 4 weeks, then spending 25 minutes to an hour for several months in a growth mindset intervention group may show the full potential of the academic effects. (Sriram, 2011, p 515-538.)
Chao, Visaria, Mukhopadhyay, & Dehejia, (2017) examined how interventions can work with incentive systems of reward to influence performance in high and low achieving students. The purpose of the study was to see if a reward system helped students internalize growth mindset intervention.
Participants included 949 students in 3rd grade which were selected out of 107 randomly selected classes (51% female, 49% male). As with the previous study, students were either part of a growth mindset group or a study skills control group. At the end of the year, all students were asked to complete the Assessment of Scholastic Skills through Educational Testing (ASSET) test. The growth mindset group participated in 10 one hour sessions learning about brain plasticity: the development and structure of the brain, how it works, and how practicing new skills it builds new neural connections and creates knowledge. Students also learned that academic setbacks did not mean limited potential and that these challenges provided opportunities to develop and evolve. Class exercises and activities were also facilitated to help reinforce the idea of learning and growth.
Incentives were used to reinforce growth mindset intervention. Teachers explained to the students that attending school regularly would improve learning and academic achievement, thus encouraging growth mindset. Students were given two pencils and an eraser as an incentive when they came to school. Some groups were permitted to select pencils and erasers of their choosing; others had the teacher select the incentive for them. The control group did not learn about brain plasticity, did not participate in activity to support mind growth, was not spoken to about the importance of regular attendance, and had no reward when attending school.
Each student was interviewed twice. The first interview was two months before being assigned to a group and the second was one month after. During both interviews, the students were shown a picture of a classroom. It was explained to the students that the picture showed a teacher asking a child to answer a math question. The child in the picture was unable to solve the math question and so went home to do practice problems. The next day, the teacher asked the child do another math problem. After looking at this picture and hearing the context, the students in both the growth mindset group and the control group were asked to state how well the child in the picture would now perform on the math problem, on a 5-star scale ranging from 1 star (extremely poorly) to 5 stars (extremely well). Students in the control group did not expect the child to improve. Students in the growth mindset group did.
Results showed that student achievement did not change significantly between the two groups due to time restraints and intervention lasting only 10 sessions. However, self-confidence and autonomy did go up for the growth mindset group. Incentives had some effect in reinforcing growth mindset. Students who did not receive a reward for attendance did not show improvement in their sense of self or in their academic performance. The self-esteem of students in the growth mindset group who chose their incentive increased, as their academic performance showed some change. It should be noted, however, that when a teacher did not allow a child to choose their own incentive, that there was little change in self-confidence and in the performance of the child. Therefore, it is concluded that incentives only worked when they encouraged a message of independence and self-reliance. There is no autonomy if there is no reward and certainly none if students rely on a teacher to pick the reward. Students must pick the reward for themselves to feel autonomous and therefore confident in their learning and in their efforts. These findings demonstrate that incentives encouraged the growth mindset intervention, enhanced confidence levels and showed some improvement in academics, but this effect only occurred over time, and when the mindset intervention was combined with a sense of personal control and autonomy. (Chao et al., 2017, p. 1402-1419)
Games are another way to promote growth mindset interventions, incentives, and build autonomy. O'Rourke, Haimovitz, Ballweber, Dweck,& Popović (2014) used a retooled version of the online game Refraction to teach and reinforce growth mindset with the purpose of studying its impact on persistence and motivation in the face of challenge. Refraction is a puzzle game that was designed to teach Elementary age students about fractions. In order to play, a child must interact with a grid that contains laser sources, target spaceships, and asteroids. The objective of the game is to split the target spaceships into correct fractional amounts without hitting the asteroids.
Two versions of the game were administered to participants, an experimental growth mindset version that taught and rewarded growth by leveraging the game narrative and incentive structure, and a control group that provided a neutral version of the game. In the control group, the main character was already on top of a mountain, and parts of the mountain would light up when a level was achieved. In the growth mindset group, the main character started on the bottom of the mountain, and would climb up the mountain as levels were completed.
15,491 elementary age students participated in the study. Data was collected from 7,500 students from each group. Results showed that students who play the growth mindset version of the game were more persistent than those who played the control version. They stayed in the game longer, had more motivation in the face of challenge, and played more levels. Moreover, growth mindset students reported feeling a great sense of accomplishment as they had to work hard for their achievement to make it to the top of the mountain where the control group had no such incentive to continue their efforts in playing. It is understandable that the control group then showed little improvement in their confidence and game performance. It was concluded that the goal of reaching a mountain top was a positive incentive to reinforce growth mindset, to promote motivation and resilience, and to improve upon math results. (O'Rourke, et al., 2014, p. 3339-3348)
Though interventions and incentives are helpful, they may not always help students overcome feelings of nervousness, worry, concern, or self-judgment that can arise from a fixed math mindset. Beauchemin, Hutchins, & Patterson, (2008) measured the effects of meditation to reduce anxiety levels among students with learning disabilities. The purpose was to see if through mediation, student anxiety lowered and academic achievement improved. 34 students agreed to participate in this study. 29% of the students were female and 71% were male. All students had an identified learning condition and all were High School aged. Students were asked to take the STAI (The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) to assess their anxiety levels and to gage how students were feeling before and after the mediation. Student received mindful mediation training for 45 minutes during two separate sessions.
The study demonstrated that anxiety scores were significantly highest before the mediation than after. 100% of students reported feelings of calm, quiet, relaxation, peacefully and better overall feelings after the mediation training. They also reported to feel more focused and clear minded. Moreover, behavioral problems due to worry and nervousness decreased and student academic achievement in class showed significant improvements. It was concluded that when students were able to calm the worries in their mind, and not feel inward judgment about their abilities, they felt better about themselves and so could focus on performing better academically. Student belief about themselves and their learning can help shape student attitude towards math, their ability to learn, and their performance in the subject matter. (Beauchemin, et al., 2008, p. 34-45)
Predicting Student Success and the Growth Mindset
In a study conducted by Schoenfeld (1989), students who were enrolled in three highly regarded high schools with good graduating and college placement were given a questionnaire about to the following six topics: attributions to success or failure, math attitude, classroom practice, student views on school Math, motivation and personal data, and academics and perceived ability.
Results showed that student ideas of success or failure were based on hard work and not innate talent. The harder one worked, the more one would succeed. If a student exhibited effort and did poorly, it was their responsibility to ask for help and learn how to do improve. Math attitude was high as students felt that math not an obstacle to overcome, but was a useful tool to help them think logically. Their motivation came from within; students were not focused on impressing teachers, but on improving themselves. It was concluded that there was a relationship between their growth mindset and high academic standing. (Schoenfeld, 1989, p. 338-355)
Degol, Wang, Zhang, & Allerton (2018) also studied students from high performing schools to help determine if positive mindset could predict STEM success and career interest. Students completed a computer based survey about their mindset, motivational beliefs, and STEM career aspirations. 1449 high school students, grades 9 to 12, participated in the study, 49% female and 51% male.
Their study showed a correlation between growth mindset and having high STEM career aspirations. Having a positive growth mindset was associated with higher math task value (the amount of time one must study and practicing math). The greater the growth mindset, the more time one would spend mastering the subject matter and developing an interest in math or STEM related subjects. Both the men and the women showed an interest in STEM careers, though the men were still more likely to have higher expectancy about their beliefs in than women. Self-defeating thoughts and perceptions about math abilities were still prevalent amongst some of the women. Some of the women, though proficient in math, still had fixed beliefs about their capabilities in the STEM field. That said, it should be noted that women who had a positive growth mindset and did not have a fixed mindset about their capabilities had greater confidence about their expectancy belief about their aspirations and higher grades, even outperforming the men who also had a positive growth mindset and similar career goals. (Degol, et al.,2018, p. 976-990).
Based on the case studies in this Literature Review, one can easily see that math anxiety is problematic and prevalent among students grades K-College. It occurs commonly amongst women, lower performing students, and when there is increased pressure among high performing students to perform well. Math anxiety is perpetuated when gender stereotypes are reinforced, when teachers who are math anxious or avoidant inadvertently transmit their anxiety to their students, and when students are humiliated for their abilities and not praised for their efforts. In order to help students move away from a fixed mindset, teachers need to help students adopt a growth mindset, or the idea that intelligence is not fixed, and develops over time with practice, resilience, and determination. Teachers can reinforce the growth mindset by using intervention programs that promote the growth mindset, incentives that contribute to student autonomy, games that encourage perseverance and motivation, and meditation to calm the mind and combat the feelings of nervousness and anxiety those with a fixed mindset can have about themselves and about math. By doing this, with patience, time, and practice, teachers can help not only relieve student math anxiety, but can also help influence student self-confidence, overall worth, academic performance, and vocational aspirations once out of reach.
References
Beauchemin, J., Hutchins, T. L., & Patterson, F. (2008). Mindfulness meditation may lessen anxiety, promote social skills, and improve academic performance among adolescents with learning disabilities. Complementary Health Practice Review, 13(1), 34-45.
Beilock, S. L., Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., & Levine, S. C. (2010). Female teachers’ math anxiety affects girls’ math achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(5), 1860-1863.
Betz, N. E. (1978). Prevalence, distribution, and correlates of math anxiety in college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 25(5), 441
Chao, M. M., Visaria, S., Mukhopadhyay, A., & Dehejia, R. (2017). Do rewards reinforce the growth mindset?: Joint effects of the growth mindset and incentive schemes in a field intervention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146(10), 1402.
Degol, J. L., Wang, M. T., Zhang, Y., & Allerton, J. (2018). Do growth mindsets in math benefit females? Identifying pathways between gender, mindset, and motivation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(5), 976-990.
Jackson, C. D., & Leffingwell, R. J. (1999). The role of instructors in creating math anxiety in students from kindergarten through college. The Mathematics Teacher, 92(7), 583-586.
O'Rourke, E., Haimovitz, K., Ballweber, C., Dweck, C., & Popović, Z. (2014, April). Brain points: a growth mindset incentive structure boosts persistence in an educational game. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp.3339-3348). ACM.
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1989). Explorations of students' mathematical beliefs and behavior. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 338-355.
Sriram, R. (2014). Rethinking intelligence: The role of mindset in promoting success for academically high-risk students. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 15(4), 515-536.
Wigfield, A., & Meece, J. L. (1988). Math anxiety in elementary and secondary school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(2), 210.