Glossary

Science of Reading

Definition: The Science of Reading is a comprehensive body of research that incorporates the cognitive, linguistic, and psychological aspects of reading and writing. It uses evidence-based practices for effective reading instruction. 

Scarborough’s Reading Rope

Definition: Scarborough's Reading Rope is a conceptual framework that illustrates the components that are required for skilled reading. It provides an appropriate frame that divides language comprehension and word recognition into several strands. The rope comprises several other strands such as phonological awareness, vocabulary, and background knowledge, among others.

Phonics

Definition: Phonics is a system of instruction for reading that teaches the sounds associated with letters, i.e. the sounds letters make. It teaches how to decode words from the sounds made by specific letters or letter combinations. 

Phonological Awareness

Definition: Phonological awareness involves recognizing and manipulating the sound structures of language, including words, syllables, and phonemes. It is a vital skill for establishing reading proficiency.

Print Concepts

Definition: Print concepts refer to a student's ideas regarding the organization and basic characteristics of print: reading direction (left to right, top to bottom), the function of space between words, and the distinction between letters, words, and sentences. Print concepts are the cornerstone for the development of reading in making students aware of how written language is representative of spoken language. As stated by Piasta et al. (2012), teaching print concepts would help emergent literacy instruction; it supports children to decode and understand text.

Reference:
Piasta, S. B., Justice, L. M., McGinty, A. S., & Kaderavek, J. N. (2012). Increasing young children’s contact with print during shared reading: Longitudinal effects on literacy achievement. Child Development, 83(3), 810-820.

Decoding

Definition: Decoding is the ability to use knowledge of letter-sound relationships, as well as patterns, or rules, to read accurately written words. It is the very basic skill that enables the realization of words and provides foundations for reading fluency and comprehension. According to research by Adams in 1990, direct instruction in phonics is necessary for the development of decoding skills that students may learn to unlock the alphabetic code to access meaning in text.

Reference:
Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. MIT Press.

Sight Word Recognition

Definition: Sight word recognition is the ability to recognize high-frequency words or irregularly spelled words without decoding them is referred to as sight word recognition. It is acquired through rigorous practice and exposure; it is one of the development skills necessary for a fluent reading process. According to Ehri (2014), sight word recognition develops logically in students through merging spelling patterns of the words with their pronunciations and meanings to form a mental store that could be accessed quickly.

Reference:
Ehri, L. C. (2014). Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 5-21.

Fluency

Definition: Fluency is the ability to read and decode text without hesitation and with appropriate expression at a rate typical for that purpose. However, readers can use their cognitive resources to understand what is read instead of decoding individual words. According to Kuhn et al. (2010), this fluency is one important factor in reading because it allows for automatic identification of words that frees cognitive resources for text comprehension in the actual process.

Reference:

Kuhn, M. R., Schwanenflugel, P. J., & Meisinger, E. B. (2010). Aligning theory and assessment of reading fluency: Automaticity, prosody, and definitions of fluency. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(2), 230-251. 

Background Knowledge

Definition: Background knowledge refers to the existing information and prior experiences that students use to understand and interpret new details or texts. Background knowledge consists of cultural foundation and personal perception as well as academic details which enable comprehension. Reading comprehension requires background knowledge according to Hirsch (2003) because students employ their existing knowledge to bridge gaps between what they know and what they encounter in new materials.

Reference: Hirsch, E. D. (2003). Reading comprehension requires knowledge—of words and the world. American Educator, 27(1), 10-29.

Text-to-Self, Text-to-World, and Text-to-Text Strategies

Definition: These strategies involve students making connections between the text they are reading and:

Text-to-Self: Their personal experiences.

Text-to-World: Events or knowledge about the world.

Text-to-Text: Other texts they’ve read.

Harvey and Goudvis (2007) demonstrate that meaningful connections enhance both student engagement and understanding by letting students link new knowledge to past knowledge.

Reference: Harvey, S., & Goudvis, A. (2007). Strategies that work: Teaching comprehension for understanding and engagement. Stenhouse Publishers.

Vocabulary

Definition: A student's vocabulary represents all the words both understood and used within their language use. The comprehension and analysis of content depend heavily on word understanding because this knowledge supports students' ability to understand what they read. According to Beck, McKeown, and Kucan (2013), strong vocabulary instruction requires teaching high-utility words within text materials to enhance reading comprehension and academic performance.

Reference: Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2013). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

Comprehension

Definition: Comprehension entails understanding and interpreting words within a text. It involves decoding particular words within texts, linking them to prior knowledge and finding meaning in the information. Duke and Pearson (2002) argued that comprehension involves a dynamic thought process, active engagement with the text, background knowledge, and strategic thinking.

Reference: Duke, N. K., & Pearson, P. D. (2002). Effective practices for developing reading comprehension. In A. E. Farstrup & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), What research has to say about reading instruction (pp. 205-242). International Reading Association.

Language Structure

Definition: Language structure refers to the rules and systems governing how words, phrases, and sentences are constructed. In essence, structure includes syntax, morphology, and phonology. Pinker (1994) asserts that language structure is important for understanding since it allows readers and speakers to organize and construe meaning.

Reference: Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: How the mind creates language. HarperCollins.

Syntax

Definition: Syntax entails the arrangement of words and phrases that make up sentences in a language. It is both a principle of structure that determines meaning and, in accordance with Chomsky (1965), an important element in the language acquisition process and the interpretation of sentences.

Reference: Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. MIT Press.

Semantics

Definition: Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It is concerned with how words, phrases, and sentences come to convey meaning. According to Lyons (1995), semantics is the study of the relationship between signs and their denotation in communication.

Reference: Lyons, J. (1995). Linguistic semantics: An introduction. Cambridge University Press.

Verbal Reasoning

Definition: Verbal reasoning capability involves the analysis and understanding of the information provided by spoken or written language with drawing of inferences and evaluation of logic. Cain and Oakhill (2007) put forth that verbal reasoning skills are intrinsic to reading comprehension and problem-solving.

Reference: Cain, K., & Oakhill, J. (2007). Children’s comprehension problems in oral and written language: A cognitive perspective. Guilford Press.

Literal Language

Definition: Literal language occurs when words and phrases mean just what they say, without any figurative or symbolic interpretation. This definition was presented by Kucer, who asserts that an understanding of the literal meaning is what lays the foundation for understanding the deeper text structures.

Reference: Kucer, S. B. (2014). Dimensions of literacy: A conceptual base for teaching reading and writing in school settings. Routledge.

Figurative Language

Definition: Figurative language involves expressions that go beyond literal meaning, such as metaphors, similes, idioms, and personification. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) argue that figurative language is deeply embedded in cognition and communication.

Reference: Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. University of Chicago Press.

Literacy Knowledge

Definition: Literacy knowledge refers to understanding how texts function, including concepts of print, genre differences, and text structures. Clay (2000) describes literacy knowledge as an essential early literacy skill that supports reading comprehension.

Reference: Clay, M. M. (2000). Concepts about print: What have children learned about the way we write language? Heinemann.

Imaginative/Literary Text

Definition: Literary texts are creative works, such as stories, poems, and plays, that use narrative techniques to engage readers. Rosenblatt (1978) describes literary texts as those that evoke personal engagement and emotional response.

Reference: Rosenblatt, L. (1978). The reader, the text, the poem: The transactional theory of the literary work. Southern Illinois University Press.

Informational/Expository Text

Definition: Expository text presents facts and information in a structured, logical manner, often using headings, diagrams, and explanations. Duke (2000) emphasizes the importance of exposing students to informational texts to develop their comprehension skills.

Reference: Duke, N. K. (2000). 3.6 minutes per day: The scarcity of informational texts in first grade. Reading Research Quarterly, 35(2), 202-224.