Unit 05
The Evil of Inaction
Can failing to help ever be just as evil?
Does ‘not helping’ meet your definition of evil? Think back to how you personally defined the concept… does evil have to be something that you actively do, or does your definition include the idea that it could be considered evil if you fail to do something that a good person would? Is it evil to turn your back on someone in desperate need? Have you personally ever felt guilty for not helping someone else that might have needed your help? These are critical questions that challenge our definition of good and evil and bring us back to the question of responsibility.
05-A: Likelihood of Helping
How did Darley and Batson’s (1973) study on helping behavior at the theology seminary demonstrate that the power of the situation can influence behavior beyond what disposition would predict? Be prepared to summarize the methodology and results.
To what extent does someone's beliefs about morality influence whether they will help someone in need? Clearly those with deep beliefs about the importance of helping others would be more likely to help... right? Well, as we've seen, it's not that simple, and sometimes the situation can exert more power over our behavior than personal beliefs. This classic study by Darley and Batson (1973) demonstrates that even when reminded, those that would preach the importance of offering help might not take the time to stop and do it.
05-B: Mediators, Moderators, & Meta-Analyses
What is a mediator? In the context of things we have already learned about evil, provide clear examples of mediators that help explain a relationship between two variables.
What is a moderator? In the context of things we have already learned about evil, provide clear examples of moderators that influence the relationship between two variables.
How does a meta-analysis advance our scientific understanding beyond what we can learn from an individual research study?
The broader goal of psychological research goes past simply describing what happens - it is to explain WHY and WHEN things happen. To do that, we need to discover the mediators and moderators involved in the relationships we observe.
WATCH: Deviant Square Episode 1: Mediator, Moderator, and Suppressors
In phase number three the authors discussed coding the characteristics of studies for moderator variables. We need to understand the difference between mediators and moderators in research, and here is a helpful video that defines the two concepts. Ignore the last part about suppressors.
There are limitations to what any one research study can truly tell us about evil, but luckily there have been so many studies conducted that there is a way to find some bigger-picture answers to big questions.
Sanchez-Meca and Marin-Martinez (2001) wrote a helpful overview of how researchers conduct meta-analyses. You do not need to worry about the statistic details of a meta-analysis for this course, I just want you to understand the overall concept.
READ: Meta-analysis in Psychological Research sections 1 (Introduction) and 2 (Phases in a Meta-analysis) and stop when you get to Table 1.
Come Prepared to Discuss...
Imagine that a researcher studied large, lecture-based courses and found that students who sat closer to the front of the room tended, on average, to earn higher grades on the final exam.
What mediates that relationship? That is, why might sitting closer to the front CAUSE better performance?
What moderates that relationship? That is, what other factors influence the extent to which where you sit matters for performance?
05-C: The Bystander Effect
What is the five-step psychological process that Latane & Darley (1970) outlined for bystander interventions in emergency situations? How does diffusion of responsibility, pluralistic ignorance, and evaluation apprehension interfere with that process?
What did Fischer et al.’s (2011) meta-analysis of bystander effect research find to be significant moderators? Be prepared to explain the effect of:
Number of passive bystanders
Perceived danger to bystanders
Sex of bystanders
Relationship among bystanders
The opportunity to communicate among bystanders
Laboratory vs. field environments (control)
Urban vs. rural environments (population density)
What did Beaman et al. (1978) find regarding the effect of learning about the bystander effect?
How might this five-step process of intervention map onto situations at a national level (e.g., genocide)?
Is there any evidence supporting the role of danger as a moderator in bystander intervention in real emergencies?
WATCH: Bystander Revolution: Dr. Philip Zimbardo
Dr. Phillip Zimbardo describes the history behind The Bystander Effect and how to counteract its effects.
LOCATE: Fischer et al.'s (2011) meta-analysis entitled "The Bystander-Effect: A Meta-Analytic Review on Bystander Intervention in Dangerous and Non-Dangerous Emergencies".
READ: Start with the paper’s introduction and read sections on definitions of psychological accounts and the classic bystander research paradigm (pgs. 517-518). Then read about research before and after 1981, the evidence for a reduced bystander-effect in dangerous emergencies, and the potential explanations for that finding. Finally, skip ahead and read the General Discussion and Theoretical Implications sections (pgs. 532-534).
STUDENTS - The full paper is in the file section of our Canvas course page
PUBLIC - You can purchase the PDF at this link.
READ: The abstract of another recent meta-analysis that explores whether the moderating effect of danger appears to hold true in real-life emergencies caught on security cameras. Does Danger Level Affect Bystander Intervention in Real-Life Conflicts? Evidence From CCTV Footage (Lindegaard et al., 2021).
Closing Thoughts...
As you've seen, learning about the bystander effect is the first step in overcoming it. Now that you know how the social situation can influence you and the others around you, you are more likely to notice yourself falling into the psychological trap that keeps you from stepping up and offering help to someone who needs it. The same knowledge could, one day, also save your life if you can apply it to influence others and get the help you need.
In-Class Learning Objectives
After participating in our class meeting or an interactive online presentation you will be able to answer the following questions:
What is the Urban Overload Hypothesis and how does it relate to bystander intervention?
How did Gaertner, Dovidio, & Johnson (1982) test the moderating effect of prejudice on bystander interventions? What did they find?
What specific things can you do to increase the likelihood that you would receive the help you need when there are others around? Consider each of the five steps of the helping process and include your earlier thinking on emotional distance.
If you're interested in learning more...
WATCH: The bystander effect is complicated -- here's why (TEDxUIowa, 2015)
I think Ken Brown goes a bit too far in simply dismissing the role of diffusion of responsibility (it's still an important psychological factor), but he makes an excellent point about how social influence (primarily informational influence) kicks in the moment we are uncertain... and what you can do to increase the odds of getting the help you need.
WATCH: How to Start a Movement (Sivers, 2010)
Related to what you have learned, watch how one person's reaction changes everything.
LOCATE: Cismaru, Jensen and Lavack's study entitled "If the Noise Coming From Next Door Were Loud Music, You'd Do Something About It: Using Mass Media Campaigns Encouraging Bystander Intervention to Stop Partner Violence."
READ: Read through the entire article. You will not be expected to know the details of the social media campaigns or the research methods. I just want you to gain a better understanding of bystander intervention and how it applies to common situations, such as domestic violence.
STUDENTS - The full paper is in the file section of our Canvas course page
PUBLIC- It appears you can download the article here.